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USGS2020

Reduction in drinking water arsenic exposure and health risk through arsenic treatment among private well households in Maine and New Jersey, USA

Over 2 million people in the United States (U.S.) drink water from private wells that contain arsenic (As) exceeding the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 10 micrograms per liter (μg/L). While there are a number of commercially available treatment technologies for removing As from drinking water, it is up to the private well households to decide whether to treat for As or not. However, how well existing treatment technologies perform in real world situations, and to what extent they reduce health risks, are not well understood. This study evaluates the effectiveness of household As treatment systems in southern-central Maine (ME, n=156) and northern New Jersey (NJ, n=94) and ascertains how untreated well water chemistry and other factors influence As removal. Untreated and treated water samples, as well as a treatment questionnaire, were collected. Most ME households in this study had point-of-use reverse-osmosis systems (POU RO), while in NJ, dual-tank point-of-entry (POE) whole house systems were popular. Arsenic treatment systems reduced well water arsenic concentrations ([As]) by up to two orders of magnitude, i.e. from a median of 71.7 to 0.8 μg/L and from a mean of 105 to 14.3 μg/L in ME, and from a median of 8.6 to 0.2 μg/L and a mean of 15.8 to 2.1 μg/L in NJ. More than half (53%) of the systems in ME reduced water [As] to below 1 µg/L, compared to 69% in NJ. The treatment system failure rates were 19% in ME (> USEPA MCL 10 µg/L) and 16% in NJ (> NJ standard 5 μg/L). In both states, the higher the untreated well water [As] and the As(III)/As ratio, the higher the rate of treatment failure. POE systems failed less than POU systems, as did the treatment systems installed and maintained by vendors than those by homeowners. The 7-fold reduction of [As] in the treated water reduced skin cancer risk alone from 3,765 to 514 in 1 million in ME, and from 568 to 75 in 1 million in NJ.

Maine, New Jersey↗

USGS2026

Moving toward a more human-oriented analysis of urban heat: Examining differences of heat exposure intensity at busy commuting locations

Examining urban thermal environments has become a critical area of research spanning epidemiology, urban planning, and ecology. While traditional metrics like air temperature ( T air ) and satellite-derived surface temperature dominate urban heat studies, these measures often fail to reflect how people actually experience thermal exposure intensity. More human-oriented metrics, such as mean radiant temperature (MRT), and the wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT), better capture this lived experience, particularly at locations where people are likely to encounter outdoor heat, such as bus stops. Human demographics further complicate heat exposure, as access to cooling resources like trees and greenspaces can vary by neighborhood income. Our study addresses these complications by collecting thermal data across 60 commuting locations in Denver, Colorado in the summer. We evaluate (1) the extent to which more human-oriented metrics capture thermal exposure compared to T air and LST, and (2) how heat exposure varies by neighborhood income levels. We observed that bus stops in low-income neighborhoods had an MRT increase 2.8 °C compared wealthier neighborhoods, and that income-driven differences in MRT and WBGT strongly depended on bus stop aspect. After accounting for solar orientation, differences in MRT increased to as much as 6.3 °C at north-facing stops. Our results suggest tree canopy shade explains some observed heat exposure patterns, with south facing bus stops seeing a MRT and WBGT decrease of 0.42 °C and 0.11 °C from a percent increase in tree canopy. Interestingly, depending on bus stop aspect, nearby buildings can increase MRT and WBGT (facing east), or decrease MRT and WBGT (facing south) If planners aim to address this issue, consideration of bus stops, and land covers configuration may help.

Colorado↗

USGS2018

Geochemistry and microbiology of groundwater and solids from extraction and monitoring wells and their relation to well efficiency at a Federally operated confined disposal facility, East Chicago, Indiana

In cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Chicago District, the U.S. Geological Survey investigated the processes affecting water quality, geochemistry, and microbiology in representative extraction and monitoring wells at a confined disposal facility (CDF) in East Chicago, Indiana. The CDF is a 140-acre Federally-managed facility that was the former location of an oil refinery and is now used for the long-term disposal and storage of dredge material from the Indiana Harbor and Indiana Harbor Canal. Residual petroleum hydrocarbons and leachate from the CDF are contained within the facility by use of a groundwater cutoff wall. The wall consists of a soil-bentonite slurry and a gradient control system made up of an automated network of 96 extraction wells, 42 monitoring wells, and 2 ultrasonic sensors that maintain an inward hydraulic gradient at the site. The pumps in the extraction wells require vigilant maintenance and must be replaced when unable to withdraw water at a rate sufficient to maintain the required inward gradient. The wells are screened in the Calumet aquifer, a coarse-grained sand and gravel unit that extends approximately 35 feet below the land surface and is not utilized for drinking-water supply at the CDF or in the surrounding area. This study was initiated to identify the cause of decreased pump discharges and to identify potential mitigation strategies. For this study, the U.S. Geological Survey collected groundwater and solids from monitoring and extraction wells. Groundwater samples were collected during June 2014 for precautionary health screening and on four occasions during September 2014 through November 2014. Groundwater samples collected from two extraction wells during June 2014 were analyzed for concentrations of anthropogenic organic constituents. During September through November 2014, groundwater samples were collected from one additional extraction well, and samples from three monitoring wells were analyzed for concentrations of inorganic and organic constituents, dissolved gases, and bacterial abundance and diversity. Solid samples were collected during April 2014, during September 2014 through November 2014, and during November 2016. Solid samples were collected from the exterior of extraction-well pumps and as flocculent from water samples. Solid samples were collected from 10 wells, including 1 extraction well and 3 monitoring wells sampled for water quality. Solid samples were analyzed for mineralogy, solid-phase habit, geochemistry, and organic composition. The following is a list of observations that were made during this study: (1) the water quality is substantially variable among the six well locations sampled as part of this study—lower (more negative) redox values and higher concentrations of many constituents (including calcium, magnesium, sodium, and sulfate) and properties (including dissolved solids, hardness, and turbidity) were detected in sampled wells located near the extraction wells with the highest frequency of failure; (2) water-level drawdown is variable between extraction wells—wells with the greatest drawdown may pull deeper groundwater into the borehole; (3) dissolved gas results indicate reducing oxidation-reduction processes in the aquifer material that can feasibly contribute iron, carbon dioxide, and other byproducts from hydrocarbon degradation to precipitates and solids that accumulate on and impair pump operation; (4) crystalline and amorphous solid-phase minerals are precipitating in the borehole; (5) several types of bacteria are present in water pumped from extraction wells and are likely responsible for bonding mineral and microbiologic matter to the pump (and other well components); and (6) bacteria may create microenvironments that facilitate precipitation of solids or inhibit dissolution of unstable minerals once the bacteria adhere to biofilm attached to the pump. Results of the study indicate that bacteria may be accumulating and entrapping solid material on the exterior of pumps. This accumulation reduces heat transfer and water discharge from the pump and may lead to decreased efficiency or mechanical failure. Observations could not be made on the well screen, gravel pack, or surrounding geologic formation; therefore, mitigating measures in the borehole may not solve well-productivity issues. Remedies for the pump fouling problems were derived from the review and interpretation of data collected during this study and from information documented in other sources about groundwater well fouling. Potential remedies to problems associated with pump fouling at the CDF may include the following: (1) reducing attractiveness of the extraction wells for microbiological growth by modifying the chemical or physical environment of the well, (2) modifying the pump exterior to decrease microbiological adherence, (3) changing the pumping regime to control the chemistry of water entering the well from the surrounding aquifer material, (4) modifying the pumps to be less physically and thermally attractive, and (5) removing hydrocarbons from groundwater and the aquifer material surrounding the wells or adding surfactants to make them more mobile. Pilot scale testing may be necessary to identify the most effective treatment or combination of treatments.

Indiana↗

USGS2010

Pesticides in groundwater in the Anacostia River and Rock Creek watersheds in Washington, D.C., 2005 and 2008

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the District Department of the Environment, conducted a groundwater-quality investigation to (a) determine the presence, concentrations, and distribution of selected pesticides in groundwater, and (b) assess the presence of pesticides in groundwater in relation to selected landscape, hydrogeologic, and groundwater-quality characteristics in the shallow groundwater underlying the Anacostia River and Rock Creek watersheds in Washington, D.C. With one exception, well depths were 100 feet or less below land surface. The USGS obtained or compiled ancillary data and information on land use (2001), subsurface sediments, and groundwater samples from 17 wells in the lower Anacostia River watershed from September through December 2005, and from 14 wells in the lower Anacostia River and lower Rock Creek watersheds from August through September 2008. Twenty-seven pesticide compounds, reflecting at least 19 different types of pesticides, were detected in the groundwater samples obtained in 2005 and 2008. No fungicides were detected. In relation to the pesticides detected, degradate compounds were as or more likely to be detected than applied (parent) compounds. The detected pesticides chiefly reflected herbicides commonly used in urban settings for non-specific weed control or insecticides used for nonspecific haustellate insects (insects with specialized mouthparts for sucking liquid) or termite-specific control. Detected pesticides included a combination of pesticides currently (2008) in use, banned or under highly restricted use, and some that had replaced the banned or restricted-use pesticides. The presence of banned and restricted-use pesticides illustrates their continued persistence and resistance to complete degradation in the environment. The presence of the replacement pesticides indicates the susceptibility of the surficial aquifer to contamination irrespective of the changes in the pesticides used. A preliminary review of the data collected in 2005 and 2008 indicated that differences in the surficial geology, land use (as a surrogate for pesticide use), and above-average precipitation for most of 2004 through 2008, as well as differences in the number and performance of USGS laboratory methods used, could have led to more pesticides detected in groundwater samples collected in 2008 than in groundwater samples collected in 2005. Thus, although data from both years of collection were used for interpretive analysis, emphasis was placed on the analysis of the data obtained in 2008. The presence of pesticides in shallow groundwater (less than approximately 100 ft (feet), or 30 m (meters), below land surface) indicated at least the upper surficial aquifer in Washington, D.C. was susceptible to contamination. One or more herbicides or insecticides were detected in groundwater samples collected from 50 percent of the shallow wells sampled in 2005, and from 62 percent of the shallow wells sampled in 2008. Differences among types of pesticides in shallow groundwater were apparent. The most frequently detected class of herbicides was the s-triazine compounds—atrazine, simazine, or prometon, or the atrazine-degradate compounds—2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-amino-s-triazine (desethylatrazine or CIAT) and 2-chloro-4-isopropylamino-6-amino-s-triazine (hydroxyatrazine or OIET). The next most frequently detected classes of herbicides were the chloroacetanilides, including metolachlor and acetochlor, and the ureic herbicides, including diuron (and degradate, 3,4-dichloroaniline), fluometuron, metsulfuron methyl, sulfameturon, bromacil, and tebuthiuron. Insecticides also were detected, but less frequently than herbicides, with one or more insecticides present in groundwater samples from 38 percent of shallow wells sampled in 2008. Detected insecticides included parent or degradate compounds commonly used for either nonspecific or haustellate (sucking) insects, including chlorpyrifos and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p,p’-DDD; a degradate of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, DDT), and for termite control, including dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor epoxide, (a degradate of heptachlor), fipronil, and the sulfone and sulfide degradates of fipronil. The concentrations of individual pesticides in shallow groundwater in both years were low. Maximum concentrations were no greater than a few tenths of a microgram per liter (μg/L); typical concentrations often were less than 0.1 μg/L. Multiple pesticides, however, commonly were present in groundwater. For example, in 2008, approximately 88 percent (7 of 8) of the wells that yielded a sample with at least one detectable pesticide contained five or more pesticides. The highest number of detections occurred in a groundwater sample from well WE Ca 32, which is located in a highly developed urban area; this sample contained 15 different pesticide residues. In relation to human and aquatic health, no pesticide concentration in either 2005 or 2008 exceeded Federal drinking-water standards. Groundwater samples from a few sites, however, contained levels of chiefly banned or restricted-use pesticides that exceeded other human-health and (or) aquatic-health guidelines. For example, concentrations of dieldrin in 2008 groundwater samples from three wells—WE Ca 32 (0.028 μg/L), WE Ba 11 (0.016 μg/L), and WW Ac 8 (0.014 μg/L)—fell within the range of concern for 2004 Federally approved non-regulatory USGS Health-Based Assessment benchmarks (0.002 to 0.2 μg/L), and exceeded earlier (1999) Federal criteria for drinking water (0.000052 μg/L). Other individual compounds whose concentrations exceeded 1999 Federal guidelines for samples from one or more of these three sites, or another site, included p,p’-DDD, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p’-DDE; another degradate of DDT), chlordane, and heptachlor epoxide. Pesticide concentrations in groundwater also were compared to three aquatic-health guidelines for freshwater (United States, Great Lakes, or Canada). One or more of these guidelines were exceeded in groundwater samples obtained in 2005 or 2008 for one or more of the compounds chlordane, dieldrin, heptachlor epoxide, p,p’-DDE, p,p’-DDD, and chlorpyrifos. The spatial distribution of pesticides in the shallow groundwater appeared to be related, in part, to land use, a surrogate for pesticide use. Although most of the wells sampled in this study are in parklands or other relatively open and accessible space, multiple pesticides most often were detected in 2008 groundwater samples collected from wells where a considerable percentage (in excess of 60 percent) of the land within a 500-m radius is developed space (residential, commercial, or other urban infrastructure). Insecticides were detected in wells surrounded by at least 50 percent, and most commonly by more than 80 percent, development. Well WE Ca 32, the site associated with the highest number of pesticide residues in groundwater (8 herbicides and 7 insecticides), is in a small residential park, where 99 percent of the surrounding land is well-maintained residential and commercial development. The vertical distribution of detected pesticides in shallow groundwater appeared to be related, in part, to depth below land surface, surficial-bedrock type, and differences in the chemistry of shallow groundwater. Pesticides were detected at relatively shallow depths in wells that may not have fully penetrated the shallow aquifer. For wells in which at least one pesticide was detected, the median depth below land surface to the top of the well screen was 5.8 m, and the maximum depth was 8.5 m. Among the types of surficial materials in which wells were completed—alluvium, terrace deposits, or Potomac Formation sub- or outcrops in the Coastal Plain Province, and saprolite or fractured bedrock (Laurel and Sykesville Formations) underlying saprolite in the Piedmont Province—no pesticides were detected in groundwater associated with wells completed in the alluvium or fractured bedrock. Detections occurred in some but not all wells completed in the other surficial materials. Overall, the pattern in occurrence appeared related to the local permeability of these sediments and groundwater chemistry. Groundwater with multiple pesticide detections tended to occur in permeable sediments (absent any appreciable overlying clay, silt, or clay-silt layers), in conjunction with other common urban contaminants (elevated chloride in excess of tens to hundreds of milligrams per liter (mg/L), and oxic, rather than reduced, groundwater as evidenced by elevated (in excess of 5 mg/L) concentrations of nitrate). The results of this investigation were compared to results from two other similar and recent studies on pesticide occurrence in the shallow aquifer. These included a study in the nearby Maryland and Delaware Coastal Plain Physiographic Province and one in the Maryland and Virginia Piedmont Physiographic Province. Results from these studies were similar to the current study in relation to (a) the types, frequencies, concentrations, and mixtures of pesticides detected; (b) compounds that exceeded human-and aquatic-health criteria; and (c) the occurrence and distribution of pesticides within the surficial aquifer in relation to depths, sediment types, and groundwater chemistries.

Washington D.C.↗

USGS2004

Total mercury and methylmercury in fish fillets, water, and bed sediments from selected streams in the Delaware River basin, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania, 1998-2001

Within the Delaware River Basin, fish-tissue samples were analyzed for total mercury (tHg). Water and bed-sediment samples were analyzed for tHg and methylmercury (MeHg), and methylation efficiencies were calculated. This study was part of a National Mercury Pilot Program conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The Delaware River Basin was chosen because it is part of the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment Program that integrates physical, chemical, and biological sampling efforts to determine status and trends in surface-water and ground-water resources. Of the 35 sites in the study, 31 were sampled for fish. The species sampled at these sites include smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), the target species, and where smallmouth bass could not be collected, brown trout (Salmo trutta), chain pickerel (Esox niger), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), and rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris). There were a total of 32 fish samples; 7 of these exceeded the 0.3 microgram per gram wet-weight mercury (Hg) concentration set for human health by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and 27 of these exceeded the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service criteria of 0.1 microgram per gram wet weight for the protection of fish-eating birds and wildlife. Basinwide analysis of Hg in fish, water, and bed sediment showed tHg concentration in fillets correlated positively with population density, urban land cover, and impervious land surface. Negative correlations included wetland land cover, septic density, elevation, and latitude. Smallmouth bass from the urban sites had a higher median concentration of tHg than fish from agricultural, low intensity-agricultural, or forested sites. Concentrations of tHg and MeHg in water were higher in samples from the more urbanized areas of the basin and were positively correlated with urbanization and negatively correlated with forested land cover. Methylation efficiency of water was negatively correlated with urbanization. Bed-sediment patterns were similar to those observed in water. Concentrations of tHg were higher in samples from the urbanized areas. In the more forested areas, MeHg concentrations were higher than in other land-use areas. Concentrations of tHg in bed sediment were positively correlated with urbanization factors (population, urban land cover, and impervious land surface) and negatively correlated with forested land cover and elevation. Forested land cover and latitude were positively correlated with concentrations of MeHg. The methylation efficiency was higher in samples from the forested areas and was negatively correlated with urbanization. Analyses within land-use groups showed that tHg concentrations in fish fillets from the urban sites were positively correlated with forested land cover and wetland cover. Urbanization factors within the agricultural group were positively correlated with tHg in fish; concentrations of tHg in fish from sites in the low intensity-agricultural group were negatively correlated with urbanization factors. Within the agricultural land-use group, tHg concentrations in water were negatively correlated with septic density, and MeHg concentrations were negatively correlated with elevation. In the forested and low intensity-agricultural groups, MeHg in water was negatively correlated with forested and agricultural land cover. Methylation efficiency in water also was negatively correlated with forested land cover but positively correlated with agricultural land cover. Bed-sediment concentrations of tHg in the forested and low-agricultural groups were positively correlated with agricultural land cover and negatively correlated with forested land cover. Concentrations of MeHg in bed sediment were positively correlated with septic density and drainage area and negatively correlated with forested land cover. Methylation efficiency was negatively correlated with population density, agricultural land cover, and sulfate concentrations in water. An urbanization effect was observed in all three media—fish, water, and bed sediment. Different factors, basinwide and within land-use groups, showed a complex relation. Additional sampling within these land-use groups could help characterize interrelations of Hg in the environment to fish in the Delaware River Basin.

New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania↗

USGS2021

Examining historical mercury sources in the Saint Louis River estuary: How legacy contamination influences biological mercury levels in Great Lakes coastal regions

Industrial chemical contamination within coastal regions of the Great Lakes can pose serious risks to wetland habitat and offshore fisheries, often resulting in fish consumption advisories that directly affect human and wildlife health. Mercury (Hg) is a contaminant of concern in many of these highly urbanized and industrialized coastal regions, one of which is the Saint Louis River estuary (SLRE), the second largest tributary to Lake Superior. The SLRE has legacy Hg contamination that drives high Hg concentrations within sediments, but it is unclear whether legacy-derived Hg actively cycles within the food web. To understand the relative contributions of legacy versus contemporary Hg sources in coastal zones, Hg, carbon, and nitrogen stable isotope ratios were measured in sediments and food webs of SLRE and the Bad River, an estuarine reference site. Hg stable isotope values revealed that legacy contamination of Hg was widespread and heterogeneously distributed in sediments of SLRE, even in areas lacking industrial Hg sources. Similar isotope values were found in benthic invertebrates, riparian spiders, and prey fish from SLRE, confirming legacy Hg reaches the SLRE food web. Direct comparison of prey fish from SLRE and the Bad River confirmed that Hg isotope differences between the sites were not attributable to fractionation associated with rapid Hg bioaccumulation at estuarine mouths, but due to the presence of industrial Hg within SLRE. The Hg stable isotope values of game fish in both estuaries were dependent on fish migration and diet within the estuaries and extending into Lake Superior. These results indicate that Hg from legacy contamination is actively cycling within the SLRE food web and, through migration, this Hg also extends into Lake Superior via game fish. Understanding sources and the movement of Hg within the estuarine food web better informs restoration strategies for other impaired Great Lakes coastal zones.

Minnesota, Wisconsin↗

USGS2022

Arsenic in private well water and birth outcomes in the United States

Background Prenatal exposure to drinking water with arsenic concentrations >50 μg/L is associated with adverse birth outcomes, with inconclusive evidence for concentrations ≤50 μg/L. In a collaborative effort by public health experts, hydrologists, and geologists, we used published machine learning model estimates to characterize arsenic concentrations in private wells—federally unregulated for drinking water contaminants—and evaluated associations with birth outcomes throughout the conterminous U.S. Methods Using several machine learning models, including boosted regression trees (BRT) and random forest classification (RFC), developed from measured groundwater arsenic concentrations of ∼20,000 private wells, we characterized the probability that arsenic concentrations occurred within specific ranges in groundwater. Probabilistic model estimates and private well usage data were linked by county to all live birth certificates from 2016 (n = 3.6 million). We evaluated associations with gestational age and term birth weight using mixed-effects models, adjusted for potential confounders and incorporated random intercepts for spatial clustering. Results We generally observed inverse associations with term birth weight. For instance, when using BRT estimates, a 10-percentage point increase in the probability that private well arsenic concentrations exceeded 5 μg/L was associated with a −1.83 g (95% CI: −3.30, −0.38) lower term birth weight after adjusting for covariates. Similarly, a 10-percentage point increase in the probability that private well arsenic concentrations exceeded 10 μg/L was associated with a −2.79 g (95% CI: −4.99, −0.58) lower term birth weight. Associations with gestational age were null. Conclusion In this largest epidemiologic study of arsenic and birth outcomes to date, we did not observe associations of modeled arsenic estimates in private wells with gestational age and found modest inverse associations with term birth weight. Study limitations may have obscured true associations, including measurement error stemming from a lack of individual-level information on primary water sources, water arsenic concentrations, and water consumption patterns.

Environment International↗

USGS2018

Survival of whirling disease resistant rainbow trout fry in the wild: A comparison of two strains

Introduced pathogens can affect fish populations, and three main factors affect disease occurrence: the environment, host, and pathogen. Manipulating at least one of these factors is necessary for controlling disease. Myxobolus cerebralis , the parasite responsible for salmonid whirling disease, became established in Colorado during the 1990s and caused significant declines in wild Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss populations. Attempts to re-establish Rainbow Trout have focused on manipulating salmonid host resistance. A Rainbow Trout strain known as GR × CRR was developed for stocking in Colorado by crossing a whirling-disease-resistant strain known as the German Rainbow Trout (GR) with the Colorado River Rainbow Trout (CRR). The GR × CRR fish exhibit resistance similar to that shown by GR, and survival and reproduction were expected to be similar to those of CRR. One disadvantage of stocking GR × CRR is that outcrossing and backcrossing could decrease resistance, and laboratory studies have indicated that this can occur. A potential disadvantage of stocking pure GR is lower survival due to domestication. To compare fry survival between the strains, a field experiment was conducted in 1.6-km reaches of nine Colorado streams. Each stream was stocked in August 2014 with 5,000 GR × CRR and 5,000 GR individuals. In October 2014, April 2015, and August 2015, apparent survival was assessed. Two laboratory predation experiments were also conducted. The field experiment revealed that short-term apparent survival was influenced by stream, and growth rate was influenced by strain and stream. However, after 12 months, there was no difference in apparent survival or growth rate between the GR and GR × CRR strains. Laboratory experiments showed that survival did not differ between the strains when confronted with Brown Trout Salmo trutta predation. Our results indicate that the GR strain is a viable option for stocking in streams where M. cerebralis is enzootic. Further evaluation is needed to determine whether GR fish will survive to maturity and reproduce.

Journal of Aquatic Animal Health↗

USGS2010

A summary of information on the rust Puccinia psidii Winter (guava rust) with emphasis on means to prevent introduction of additional strains to Hawaii

The neotropical rust fungus Puccinia psidii ( P. psidii ) was originally described from the host common guava in its native Brazil but has been found since on hosts throughout the myrtle family (Myrtaceae), including a dramatic host jump to nonnative Eucalyptus plantations. Most rust fungi are able to live only on a very narrow range of host species. P. psidii is unusual both for having a broad host range and for the intensity of its damage to susceptible young growth. This rust first got a foothold in the United States in Florida more than three decades ago. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has since considered it a nonactionable, nonreportable pest. Hawaii and Florida are the only two states with native species in the myrtle family. Over a period of 30 years, this rust has done little damage to any of the scattered native Myrtaceae in Florida, although the host range of the rust has gradually grown to about 30 mostly nonnative species in the family, apparently because of increasing genetic variety of the rust by repeated introductions. However, Florida’s native Myrtaceae are among the roughly 1,100 neotropical species that are largely resistant to P. psidii . The 3,000 species of non-neotropical Myrtaceae of the Pacific, Australia, Asia, and Africa are expected to prove much more vulnerable to P. psidii . Little is known about the genetics or genetic strains of P. psidii , although existing literature shows that there are numerous strains that have differential ability to infect suites of host plants. The rust was first recorded in the state of Hawaii on Oahu in April 2005 and quickly spread throughout the Hawaiian Islands. The main concern in Hawaii became the potential threat to ohia, Metrosideros polymorpha (Myrtaceae), the endemic forest tree species overwhelmingly important in Hawaii’s nature and culture. The potential ecological consequences of a virulent strain of rust on ohia forests are immense, due to its role as a foundation tree species and the diversity of niches it fills in Hawaii. A single genetic strain of the rust is established in Hawaii, apparently composed of a single genotype lacking sexual reproduction. P. psidii has been found statewide in Hawaii attacking Myrtaceae from near sea level to about 1,200 m elevation in areas with rainfall ranging from 750–5,000 mm. Five of eight native Myrtaceae and at least 15 nonnative species have been observed as hosts of P. psidii in Hawaii. The federally endangered Eugenia koolauensis (nioi) and the nonendangered indigenous species Eugenia reinwardtiana are severely damaged. The introduced (an Asian species) and invasive rose apple, Syzygium jambos , is severely affected at a landscape scale, with widespread crown dieback and many instances of complete tree death. In spite of billions of wind-dispersed rust spores produced from rose apple infestations during 2006 to 2008, adjacent ohia have been little affected to date by the rust strain in Hawaii. Within the elevation range of the rust, P. psidii is found on less than 5 percent of the ohia trees in the wild; on those ohia trees on which the rust is found, it is normally found on less than 5 percent of the leaves. The strain in Hawaii has not attacked many of the species known to be infected by the rust elsewhere, including common guava. On the basis of the very substantial genetic diversity of the much-studied, crop-damaging species of the genus Puccinia , there is good reason to believe that there are at minimum dozens and likely hundreds or thousands of genotypes of P. psidii , likely concentrated in the core range in Brazil but with potential for dispersal by globalization. Multiple genotypes are believed already present in the United States and certain to spread freely in the absence of restrictions. The U.S. Forest Service has initiated a major collaborative project in Brazil to investigate the genetics of susceptibility of Hawaii’s ohia to P. psidii , but initial results will likely not be available for several years. If just one more strain reaches Hawaii, the consequences could be dire for ohia, with each new genotype arriving having an unknown likelihood of increasing damage to ohia; possibilities for mutation and (or) genetic mixing, even with asexual strains, are apparently substantial, based on what is known about other Puccinia species. Investigations are needed to clarify rust-nioi relationships. However, it is likely that keeping out new strains of P. psidii may be important for long-term survival of nioi as well as for the health of ohia forest. The source of Hawaii’s initial invasion by P. psidii is uncertain but is strongly suspected to have been decorative foliage of species in the myrtle family from the mainland United States, most likely California, where there had been outbreaks of this rust on cultivated myrtle in 2005. In 2006–7, Maui’s Hawaii Department of Agriculture (HDOA) inspectors intercepted several P. psidii infected shipments of foliage myrtle, shipped from several California counties. Recognizing the huge threat of the rust to Hawaii’s one million acres of ohia forests, and consequently to Hawaii’s watersheds and biodiversity, Hawaii’s Board of Agriculture unanimously approved an interim rule in August 2007 banning importation of plants in the myrtle family from “infested areas,” specified as South America, Florida, and California. However, the interim rule has not been made permanent by HDOA, and the department has stated that it needs further information to formulate a long-term rule that imposes appropriate measures. Rust spores can survive for 2 to 3 months, and the pathogen can be transported to Hawaii on Myrtaceae from anywhere in the world through the United States mainland. There is much geographic reshuffling of flowers and foliage among the far-flung firms in the trade, especially for bouquet making. Because P. psidii is a nonactionable and nonreportable pest in the United States, foliage and flowers of the myrtle family can move freely into the country (usually but not necessarily always through the ports of Miami or Los Angeles), and from state to state. Currently, the State of Hawaii regulates incoming plant material in the family Myrtaceae by visual inspection. Inspection capacity and latent (asymptomatic) infections limit the ability to detect the rust. New molecular tests could improve detection efficiency, but the cost and the time required to process samples currently precludes their routine use in ports of entry. Interdiction, which has effectively kept coffee rust ( Hemileia vastatrix ) out of Hawaii for 120 years, offers the strongest protection for Hawaii’s native ecosystems from P. psidii . Interdiction of Myrtaceae from the continental United States could have the important supplementary benefit of preventing establishment in Hawaii of other very significant pests of multiple species of Myrtaceae that are already in the country, including: the Eugenia psyllid Trioza eugeniae (Hemiptera: Psyllidae); Chrysophtharta m-fuscum , the Eucalyptus tortoise beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae); Leptocybe invasa , the blue gum chalcid wasp (Hymenoptera: Chalcidae); and the fungal pathogens Mycosphaerella molleriana (Ascomycota: Mycosphaerelliaceae, crinkle leaf disease of Eucalyptus spp.) and Neofusicoccum parvum (Ascomycota: Botryosphaeriaceae), currently causing serious damage to Syzygium paniculatum in south Florida nurseries. Each of these pests would be likely to cause very significant damage to native and (or) cultivated Myrtaceae in Hawaii. Each of these pests is a prime candidate for transport by the foliage and (or) nursery stock pathways from Florida and California into Hawaii. Hawaii Department of Agriculture has a clear mandate to protect Hawaii’s natural environment, forestry and cultivated Myrtaceae. Principles of the World Trade Organization’s Treaty on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and the International Plant Protection Convention are consistent with the right of Hawaii to take action. The current threat of P. psidii and the other five serious threats to Myrtaceae are primarily posed by the importation of infected plants from the continental United States; however, that may change in the future. If Hawaii were to decide to take a stand (through State regulation) to protect its native and introduced Myrtaceae, there is a possibility that USDA would consider Federal regulation of Myrtaceae from foreign countries.

Hawaii↗

USGS2016

Mercury risk to avian piscivores across western United States and Canada

The widespread distribution of mercury (Hg) threatens wildlife health, particularly piscivorous birds. Western North America is a diverse region that provides critical habitat to many piscivorous bird species, and also has a well-documented history of mercury contamination from legacy mining and atmospheric deposition. The diversity of landscapes in the west limits the distribution of avian piscivore species, complicating broad comparisons across the region. Mercury risk to avian piscivores was evaluated across the western United States and Canada using a suite of avian piscivore species representing a variety of foraging strategies that together occur broadly across the region. Prey fish Hg concentrations were size-adjusted to the preferred size class of the diet for each avian piscivore (Bald Eagle = 36 cm, Osprey = 30 cm, Common and Yellow-billed Loon = 15 cm, Western and Clark's Grebe = 6 cm, and Belted Kingfisher = 5 cm) across each species breeding range. Using a combination of field and lab-based studies on Hg effect in a variety of species, wet weight blood estimates were grouped into five relative risk categories including: background (< 0.5 μg/g), low (0.5–1 μg/g), moderate (1–2 μg/g), high (2–3 μg/g), and extra high (> 3 μg/g). These risk categories were used to estimate potential mercury risk to avian piscivores across the west at a 1 degree-by-1 degree grid cell resolution. Avian piscivores foraging on larger-sized fish generally were at a higher relative risk to Hg. Habitats with a relatively high risk included wetland complexes (e.g., prairie pothole in Saskatchewan), river deltas (e.g., San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, Columbia River), and arid lands (Great Basin and central Arizona). These results indicate that more intensive avian piscivore sampling is needed across Western North America to generate a more robust assessment of exposure risk.

Science of the Total Environment↗

USGS2011

Hydrologic assessment of three drainage basins in the Pinelands of southern New Jersey, 2004-06

The New Jersey Pinelands is an ecologically diverse area in the southern New Jersey Coastal Plain, most of which overlies the Kirkwood-Cohansey aquifer system. The demand for groundwater from this aquifer system is increasing as local development increases. Because any increase in groundwater withdrawals has the potential to affect streamflows and wetland water levels, and ultimately threaten the ecological health and diversity of the Pinelands ecosystem, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the New Jersey Pinelands Commission, began a multi-phase hydrologic investigation in 2004 to characterize the hydrologic system supporting the aquatic and wetland communities of the New Jersey Pinelands area (Pinelands). The current investigation of the hydrology of three representative drainage basins in the Pinelands (Albertson Brook, McDonalds Branch, and Morses Mill Stream basins) included a compilation of existing data; collection of water-level and streamflow data; mapping of the water-table altitude and depth to the water table; and analyses of water-level and streamflow variability, subsurface gradients and flow patterns, and water budgets. During 2004-06, a hydrologic database of existing and new data from wells and stream sites was compiled. Methods of data collection and analysis were defined, and data networks consisting of 471 wells and 106 surface-water sites were established. Hydrographs from 26 water-level-monitoring wells and four streamflow-gaging stations were analyzed to show the response of water levels and streamflow to precipitation and recharge with respect to the locations of these wells and streams within each basin. Water-level hydrographs show varying hydraulic gradients and flow potentials, and indicate that responses to recharge events vary with well depth and proximity to recharge and discharge areas. Results of the investigation provide a detailed characterization of hydrologic conditions, processes, and relations among the components of the hydrologic cycle in the Pinelands. In the Pinelands, recharge replenishes the aquifer system and contributes to groundwater flow, most of which moves to wetlands and surface water where natural discharge occurs. Some groundwater flow is intercepted by supply wells. Recharge rates generally are highest during the non-growing season and are inversely related to evapotranspiration. Analysis of subsurface hydraulic gradients, water-table fluctuations, and streamflow variability indicates a strong linkage between groundwater and wetlands, lakes and streams. Gradient analysis indicates that most wetlands are in groundwater discharge areas, but some wetlands are in groundwater recharge areas. The depth to the water table ranges from zero at surface-water features up to about 10 meters in topographically high areas. Depth to water fluctuates seasonally, and the magnitude of these fluctuations generally increases with distance from surface water. Variations in the permeability of the soils and sediments of the aquifer system strongly affect patterns of water movement through the subsurface and the interaction of groundwater with wetlands, lakes and streams. Mean annual streamflow during 2004-06 ranged from 83 to 106 percent of the long-term mean annual discharge, indicating that the data-collection period can be considered representative of average conditions. Measurements of groundwater levels, stream stage, and stream discharge and locations of start-of-flow are illustrated in basin-wide maps of water-table altitude, depth to the water table, and stream base flow during the period. Water-level data collected along 15 hydrologic transects that span the range of environments from uplands through wetlands to surface water were used to determine hydraulic gradients, potential flow directions, and areas of recharge and discharge. These data provide information about the localized interactions of groundwater with wetlands and surface water. Wetlands were categorized with r

New Jersey↗

USGS2016

Spatial and temporal patterns of mercury concentrations in freshwater fish across the Western United States and Canada

Methylmercury contamination of fish is a global threat to environmental health. Mercury (Hg) monitoring programs are valuable for generating data that can be compiled for spatially broad syntheses to identify emergent ecosystem properties that influence fish Hg bioaccumulation. Fish total Hg (THg) concentrations were evaluated across the Western United States (US) and Canada, a region defined by extreme gradients in habitat structure and water management. A database was compiled with THg concentrations in 96,310 fish that comprised 206 species from 4262 locations, and used to evaluate the spatial distribution of fish THg across the region and effects of species, foraging guilds, habitats, and ecoregions. Areas of elevated THg exposure were identified by developing a relativized estimate of fish mercury concentrations at a watershed scale that accounted for the variability associated with fish species, fish size, and site effects. THg concentrations in fish muscle ranged between 0.001 and 28.4 (μg/g wet weight (ww)) with a geometric mean of 0.17. Overall, 30% of individual fish samples and 17% of means by location exceeded the 0.30 μg/g ww US EPA fish tissue criterion. Fish THg concentrations differed among habitat types, with riverine habitats consistently higher than lacustrine habitats. Importantly, fish THg concentrations were not correlated with sediment THg concentrations at a watershed scale, but were weakly correlated with sediment MeHg concentrations, suggesting that factors influencing MeHg production may be more important than inorganic Hg loading for determining fish MeHg exposure. There was large heterogeneity in fish THg concentrations across the landscape; THg concentrations were generally higher in semi-arid and arid regions such as the Great Basin and Desert Southwest, than in temperate forests. Results suggest that fish mercury exposure is widespread throughout Western US and Canada, and that species, habitat type, and region play an important role in influencing ecological risk of mercury in aquatic ecosystems.

Science of the Total Environment↗

USGS2014

Deposit model for heavy-mineral sands in coastal environments

This report provides a descriptive model of heavy-mineral sands, which are sedimentary deposits of dense minerals that accumulate with sand, silt, and clay in coastal environments, locally forming economic concentrations of the heavy minerals. This deposit type is the main source of titanium feedstock for the titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) pigments industry, through recovery of the minerals ilmenite (Fe 2+ TiO 3 ), rutile (TiO 2 ), and leucoxene (an alteration product of ilmenite). Heavy-mineral sands are also the principal source of zircon (ZrSiO 4 ) and its zirconium oxide; zircon is often recovered as a coproduct. Other heavy minerals produced as coproducts from some deposits are sillimanite/kyanite, staurolite, monazite, and garnet. Monazite [(Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO 4 ] is a source of rare earth elements as well as thorium, which is used in thorium-based nuclear power under development in India and elsewhere. The processes that form coastal deposits of heavy-mineral sands begin inland. High-grade metamorphic and igneous rocks that contain heavy minerals weather and erode, contributing detritus composed of sand, silt, clay, and heavy minerals to fluvial systems. Streams and rivers carry the detritus to the coast, where they are deposited in a variety of coastal environments, such as deltas, the beach face (foreshore), the nearshore, barrier islands or dunes, and tidal lagoons, as well as the channels and floodplains of streams and rivers in the coastal plain. The sediments are reworked by waves, tides, longshore currents, and wind, which are effective mechanisms for sorting the mineral grains on the basis of differences in their size and density. The finest-grained, most dense heavy minerals are the most effectively sorted. The result is that heavy minerals accumulate together, forming laminated or lens-shaped, heavy-mineral-rich sedimentary packages that can be several meters and even as much as tens of meters thick. Most economic deposits of heavy-mineral sands are Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary in age; some are modern coastal deposits. Superimposed on these basic processes of ore formation are a multitude of contributing and modifying factors, such as the following: Strong, sustained wave action moves sand from offshore to the shore, where the sand and heavy minerals are sorted by size and density. Mineral sorting occurs mainly on the upper part of the hightide swash (wave) zone. Fine-grained sands and heavy minerals on the foreshore can be remobilized by winds, forming heavy mineral-rich sand dunes behind the beach. Longshore drift combined with the geomorphology of the coast exert strong influence on the location of the heavy-mineral sands deposits. Sea level changes are a function of climatic changes, such as ice ages. Rises in regional sea level (transgression) and lowering of sea level (regression) strongly influence the deposition and preservation of heavy-mineral sands. The majority of heavy-mineral sands accumulation appears related to seaward progradation of the shore during regression events. Local faulting may affect the geomorphology of the coast, which controls the distribution of heavy mineral deposition in a coastal basin. Heavy mineral grains appear to weather primarily after their deposition in the coastal plain; this weathering is caused by groundwaters, humic acids, and other intrabasinal fluids. This weathering can enhance the TiO 2 content of ilmenite. Iron is leached from ilmenite during weathering, which thereby upgrades the TiO 2 content of the ilmenite, forming leucoxene. The resulting deposits of heavy-mineral sands can be voluminous. Individual bodies of heavy mineral-rich sands are typically about 1 kilometer wide and more than 5 kilometers long. Many heavy-mineral sands districts extend for more than 10 kilometers and contain several individual deposits that are spread along an ancient or modern strandline. Reported thicknesses of economic deposits range from 3 to 45 meters. Individual ore deposits typically comprise at least 10 megatonnes of ore (the total size of the individual sand-silt body), whose overall heavy-mineral content is 2 to greater than 10 percent. Heavy-mineral sands deposits are relatively easy to mine because they are weakly to poorly consolidated, and they are relatively easy to process. From a geoenvironmental standpoint, mining of heavy mineral-sands generates little or no acid or solubilized metals. However, environmental and human health concerns related to such mining include potential effects on indigenous flora and fauna, effects on local hydrology, and issues related to processing and storing thorium-bearing monazite, owing to its radioactivity. Regional exploration for deposits of heavy-mineral sands can utilize the analyses of stream sediment samples for Ti, Hf, the rare earth elements, Th, and U, and geophysical surveys, particularly radiometric (gamma-ray spectrometry for K, U, and Th) and magnetic methods. Geophysical anomalies may be small, and surveys are generally more successful when conducted close to sources of interest.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2022

Mercury contamination and potential health risks to Arctic seabirds and shorebirds

Since the last Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) effort to review biological effects of mercury (Hg) on Arctic biota in 2011 and 2018, there has been a considerable number of new Arctic bird studies. This review article provides contemporary Hg exposure and potential health risk for 36 Arctic seabird and shorebird species, representing a larger portion of the Arctic than during previous AMAP assessments now also including parts of the Russian Arctic. To assess risk to birds, we used Hg toxicity benchmarks established for blood and converted to egg, liver, and feather tissues. Several Arctic seabird populations showed Hg concentrations that exceeded toxicity benchmarks, with 50 % of individual birds exceeding the “no adverse health effect” level. In particular, 5 % of all studied birds were considered to be at moderate or higher risk to Hg toxicity. However, most seabirds (95 %) were generally at lower risk to Hg toxicity. The highest Hg contamination was observed in seabirds breeding in the western Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Most Arctic shorebirds exhibited low Hg concentrations, with approximately 45 % of individuals categorized at no risk, 2.5 % at high risk category, and no individual at severe risk. Although the majority Arctic-breeding seabirds and shorebirds appeared at lower risk to Hg toxicity, recent studies have reported deleterious effects of Hg on some pituitary hormones, genotoxicity, and reproductive performance. Adult survival appeared unaffected by Hg exposure, although long-term banding studies incorporating Hg are still limited. Although Hg contamination across the Arctic is considered low for most bird species, Hg in combination with other stressors, including other contaminants, diseases, parasites, and climate change, may still cause adverse effects. Future investigations on the global impact of Hg on Arctic birds should be conducted within a multi-stressor framework. This information helps to address Article 22 (Effectiveness Evaluation) of the Minamata Convention on Mercury as a global pollutant.

Science of the Total Environment↗

USGS2016

Relation between Enterococcus concentrations and turbidity in fresh and saline recreational waters, coastal Horry County, South Carolina, 2003–04

Bacteria related to the intestinal tract of humans and other warm-blooded animals have been detected in fresh and saline surface waters used for recreational purposes in coastal areas of Horry County, South Carolina, since the early 2000s. Specifically, concentrations of the facultative anaerobic organism, Enterococcus , have been observed to exceed the single-sample regulatory limit of 104 colony forming units per 100 milliliters of water. Water bodies characterized by these concentrations are identified on the 303(d) list for impaired water in South Carolina; moreover, because current analytical methods used to monitor Enterococcus concentrations take up to 1 day for results to become available, water-quality advisories are not reflective of the actual health risk. To determine if Enterococcus concentrations in surface water could be assessed in a more rapid manner, an investigation was completed between 2003 and 2004 in the study area of coastal Horry County, South Carolina. The study was designed to assess the relation between Enterococcus concentrations and turbidity, which, unlike Enterococcus concentrations, can be measured continuously by using a multiparameter water-quality sensor and results reported in real time. In 2003, three water-quality data collection stations that included a multiparameter water-quality sensor that measured turbidity were located in three representative surface-water basins in coastal Horry County, South Carolina. All these locations had previous reports of high Enterococcus concentrations. At each station, the water-quality sensor was placed in the water column and continuously measured turbidity, pH, specific conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and temperature. Each water-quality data collection station also monitored instantaneous precipitation and wind speed and direction. Surface-water samples were collected at each station during events characterized by no precipitation and by some recorded precipitation using manual and automatic methods, and analyzed for Enterococcus concentrations. A comparison of Enterococcus concentrations in surface-water samples collected simultaneously using both methods indicated a positive relation, although the average percent relative difference between the methods was 46 percent. During a period of no precipitation in February 2004, no relation between turbidity and Enterococcus concentrations was observed for surface-water samples collected at the water-quality data collection station located in the channel that drains a freshwater swamp. In contrast, during periods of precipitation in March and August 2004 at this location, a positive relation was observed between turbidity and Enterococcus concentrations in surface-water samples; that is, water samples characterized by higher turbidity also contained higher Enterococcus concentrations. At the water-quality data collection station located in a channel that drains to the surf zone of the Atlantic Ocean, no relation was observed between turbidity and Enterococcus concentrations during periods of either no precipitation (July 2004) or precipitation (August 2004). At this location, the turbidity was inversely related to relative tide height, high turbidity was observed during low tide when freshwater flowed seaward, and low turbidity was observed during high tide when saline seawater flowed landward. The positive relation observed between turbidity and Enterococcus concentrations in surface water at the water-quality data collection station located in the channel that drains a freshwater swamp may be attributed to bacterial survival in the abundant channel bed sediments that characterized this more naturalized area. Surface-water bed sediments collected near each water-quality data collection station and the surf zone were incubated in static microcosms in the laboratory and analyzed for Enterococcus concentrations over time. Enterococcus concentrations continued to persist in bed sediments collected in the channel that drains the swamp even after almost 4 months of incubation. Conversely, enterococci were not observed to persist in bed sediments characterized by high specific conductance. Although it is currently (2016) unknown whether this persistence of enterococci demonstrates growth or viability, the data indicate that enterococci can exist in channel bed-sediment environments outside of a host for a long time. This observation confirms previous reports that challenge the use of Enterococcus concentrations as an indicator of the recent introduction of fecal-related material and the associated acute risk to other pathogens.

South Carolina↗

USGS2009

Ecological assessment of wadeable streams on O`ahu, Hawai'i, 2006-2007: A pilot study

In 2006–07, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Pacific Islands Water Science Center (PIWSC), in cooperation with the Hawai‘i Department of Health (HDOH), conducted a pilot study as a participant in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (USEPA) Wadeable Streams Assessment (WSA) program. Forty randomly selected sites on perennial streams on O‘ahu, Hawai‘i, were surveyed for habitat characteristics, water chemistry, and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages. Of the original sampling frame of approximately 505.2 miles of perennial stream, roughly 96.7±30.7 miles were found to be nonperennial or estuarine and another 200.5±64.7 miles were judged to be inaccessible. The scope of this report presents an assessment of the remaining 208±57.6 miles of accessible, wadeable, perennial stream length on O‘ahu. Benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages were used to determine the ecological condition at each site. Components of the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages were assessed using the multimetric Preliminary–Hawaiian Benthic Index of Biotic Integrity (P–HBIBI) developed by Wolff (2005). Based on the P–HBIBI scores, an estimated 5.8±5.8 percent of the island’s total stream length is in most disturbed condition, 56±13.5 percent is in intermediately disturbed condition, and 38.2±13.2 percent is in least disturbed condition. Windward O‘ahu had the highest percentage of stream length in least disturbed biological condition at 56.7±20.8 percent. Using the relative abundance of insects, one of the core metrics that make up the P–HBIBI, 43.4±14.2 percent of the islandwide stream length was classified in the most disturbed condition—52±31.2 percent of the Honolulu region stream length and 51.4±23.3 percent of the windward O‘ahu stream length. An analysis of total nitrogen (N) estimated approximately 41.1±13.7 percent of the stream length on O‘ahu was in most disturbed condition. Regionally, the Honolulu region had the largest proportion, 61.3±28.6 percent, of most disturbed stream length in terms of total N. An analysis of total phosphorus (P) classified approximately 43.2±14 percent of the stream length on O‘ahu as most disturbed. Regionally, windward O‘ahu had the largest proportion, 78.4±19.5 percent, of stream length classified as most disturbed. An analysis of embeddedness classified 30.3±14.7 percent of O‘ahu’s stream length as most. Regionally, windward O‘ahu had the largest proportion, 43.3±17.1 percent, of stream length classified as most disturbed as compared to the reference condition. An analysis of riparian disturbance, an index of the in-channel, riparian, and near-stream human activities, classified 43±13 percent of stream length on O‘ahu as most disturbed. The Honolulu region had the largest proportion of stream length, 86.3±13.7 percent, classified as most disturbed. The information in this report is the first attempt in Hawai‘i to assess the islandwide ecological condition of wadeable, perennial streams on O‘ahu using the USEPA WSA probabilistic design. This study has demonstrated that such an assessment is practical and that it can provide information that may help the USEPA and HDOH in determining the status of aquatic ecosystems on O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. This study provides a baseline assessment of the current islandwide ecological condition and identifies potential environmental stressors. It can be used, with future WSA studies in Hawai‘i, to measure the changes in those conditions and the effectiveness of management efforts to protect, restore, and maintain Hawai‘i’s aquatic environment.

Hawaii↗

USGS2003

Resurvey of quality of surface water and bottom material of the Barataria Preserve of Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve, Louisiana, 1999-2000

The quality of water and bottom material in the Barataria Preserve of Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve, Louisiana, was surveyed from March 1999 to May 2000. Organochlorine, chlorophenoxy acid, and organophosphorus pesticides; polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's); and trace elements were analyzed in surface water and bottom material from three sites previously sampled in a 1981-82 survey. Surface water at six sites was sampled and analyzed for selected nutrients and major inorganic ions based on their importance to human health, the health of the marshes of the Barataria Preserve, or their usefulness in tracking the circulation of Mississippi River water in the Barataria Preserve. Southern Louisiana was in a moderate to severe drought during most of the sampling period, which elevated salinity in the Barataria Preserve for at least 8 months. Specific conductance values were less than 3,000 µS/cm (microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius) in surface water throughout the Barataria Preserve from March through September 1999. Specific conductance values increased over the next 2 months and then remained between 5,000 and 6,000 µS/cm. The herbicide 2,4-D was detected in water at the two sites sampled in August 1999 but not at any site during the two other sampling times. Iron, manganese, and the trace elements copper, nickel, and zinc were detected in dissolved and whole-water samples at all three sites. Nitrite+ nitrate, as nitrogen, concentrations ranged from less than 0.002 to 0.19 mg/L (milligrams per liter). Ammonia, as nitrogen, concentrations ranged from less than 0.01 to 0.16 mg/L. Orthophosphate, as phosphorus, concentrations ranged from less than 0.002 to 0.14 mg/L. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, sulfate, and chloride concentrations in surface water were elevated due to the marine influence on the composition of surface water in the Barataria Preserve during the sampling period. Sulfate and chloride concentrations reached 379 and 2,830 mg/L, respectively. Polychlorinated biphenyls, chlordane, and DDT were detected in bottom material. Trace elements were detected in bottom material at all three of the sampled sites. Arsenic concentrations ranged from 4 to 9 µg/g (micrograms per gram) and lead concentrations from 20 to 31 µg/g. Mercury concentrations also were above laboratory reporting levels (LRL's) for bottom material at all three sites. The herbicide 2,4-D was detected in surface water during both surveys. Other organic compounds were not detected in surface water. Mercury and chromium were detected in surface water at all three sites during the 1981-82 survey but were below LRL?s during the 1999-2000 survey. Changes in chemical characteristics of bottom material occurred during the years between the 1981-82 and 1999-2000 surveys. DDT decreased in the bottom material at Bayou Segnette near Barataria. DDE, a degradation product, increased at this site, indicating that over time, DDT concentrations are decreasing in bottom material. PCB's were present in similar concentrations (Bayou Segnette near Barataria) or increased (Bayou Segnette 4.6 miles below Westwego) from 1981-82 to 1999-2000. Cadmium concentrations consistently decreased by half or more at all three sites from 1981-82 to 1999-2000. Mercury concentrations were consistently lower at all three sites in the 1999-2000 survey, but the differences from the 1981-82 survey were small. Chromium concentrations increased at two of the three sites from 1981-82 to the present survey. At the third site, no chromium value was available for the earlier survey. Concentrations of copper and nickel increased in bottom material at the two sites on Bayou Segnette, but decreased at Kenta Canal northwest of Westwego. Probable Effects Levels (PEL's) and Interim Sediment Quality Guidelines (ISQG's) concentrations, as tabulated by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the of the Environment, were used to assess the probability of biological impairment in the Barataria Preserve. PEL’s are concentrations of a chemical at or above which some biological impairment is likely. ISQG concentrations are those at or below which biological impairment is unlikely. Concentrations of 2,4-D and trace elements, when detected in surface water, were substantially lower than levels at which biological impairment could be expected. Concentrations of organic compounds in bottom material were at most less than 25 percent of PEL’s, and usually much lower. Arsenic, cadmium, copper, and lead concentrations in bottom material were generally slightly above or lower than ISQG concentrations in both surveys, although arsenic was as high as 53 percent of PEL’s at one site in the 1999-2000 survey. All other trace elements in bottom material were present in concentrations lower than ISQG concentrations.

Louisiana↗

USGS1978

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 8: Quinnipiac River basin

The Quinnipiac River basin area in southcentral Connecticut covers 363 square miles, and includes all drainage basins that enter Long Island Sound from the Branford to the Wepawaug Rivers. Its population in 1970 was estimated at 535,000. Precipitation averages 47 inches per year and provides an abundant supply of water. Twenty-one inches returns to the atmosphere as evapotranspiration; the remainder flows directly to streams or percolates to the water table and discharges to Long Island Sound. Small amounts of water are exported from the basin by the New Britain Water Department, and small amounts are imported to the basin by the New Haven Water Company. The amount of water that can be developed at a given place depends upon precipitation, variability of streamflow, hydraulic properties and areal extent of the aquifers, and hydraulic connection between the aquifers and major streams. The quality of the water is determined by the physical environment and the effects of man. Stratified drift is the only aquifer capable of large sustained yields of water to individual wells. Yields of 64 screened wells tapping stratified drift range from 17 to 2,000 gpm (gallons per minute); their median yield is 500 gpm. Till is widespread and generally provides only small amounts of water. Wells in till normally yield only a few hundred gallons of water daily and commonly are inadequate during dry periods. Till is generally used only as an emergency or secondary source of water. Bedrock aquifers underlie the entire report area and include sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rock types. These aquifers supply small but reliable quantities of water to wells throughout the basin and are the chief source for many nonurban homes and farms. About 90 percent of the wells tapping bedrock yield at least 2 pgm, and much larger yields are occasionally reported. Maximum well yields of 305 gpm for sedimentary, 75 gpm for igneous, and 200 gpm for metamorphic bedrock have been reported. Water potentially available from stratified drift was estimated on the basis of hydraulic characteristics of the aquifers and evaluation of natural and induced recharge. Long-term yields estimated for 14 favorable areas of stratified drift range from 0.8 to 16.1 mgd (million gallons per day), but detailed verification studies are needed before development. The natural quality of water in the report area is good. The water is generally low in dissolved solid and is soft to moderately hard. Surface water is less mineralized than ground water, especially during high flow when it is primarily surface runoff. A median dissolved-solids concentration of 117 mg/l (milligrams per liter) and a median hardness of 58 mg/l was determined for water samples collected at 20 sites on 16 streams during high flow. A median dissolved-solids concentration of 146 mg/l and a median hardness of 82 mg/l was determined for samples collected at the same sites during low flow. In contrast water from 130 wells had a median dissolved-solids concentration of 188 mg/l and a median hardness of 110 mg/l. Iron and manganese occur in objectionable concentrations in parts of the report area, particularly in water from streams draining swamps and in water from aquifers rich in iron- and manganese-bearing minerals. Concentrations of iron in excess of 0.3 mg/l were found in 40 percent of the high-streamflow samples, 59 percent of the low-streamflow samples and 20 percent of the ground-water samples. Human activities have modified the quality of water in much of the basin. Wide and erratic fluctuations in concentration of dissolved solids in streams, high bacterial content of the Quinnipiac River, and locally high nitrate and chloride concentrations in ground water are evidence of man's influence. Streams, wetlands, and some aquifers along the southern boundary of the basin contain salty water. Overpumping has caused extensive saltwater intrusion in aquifers in the southern and eastern parts of New Haven. The total amount of fresh water used in the area during 1970 is estimated at 35,710 million gallons, or 183 gallons per day per capita. Public water-supply systems met the domestic requirements of about 90 percent of the population; all the systems supplied water that met the drinking water standards of the Connecticut Department of Health.

Connecticut↗