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USGS2018

Executive summary. In Second State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR2): A Sustained Assessment Report

Central to life on Earth, carbon is essential to the molecular makeup of all living things and plays a key role in regulating global climate. To understand carbon’s role in these processes, researchers measure and evaluate carbon stocks and fluxes. A stock is the quantity of carbon contained in a pool or reservoir in the Earth system (e.g., carbon in forest trees), and a flux is the direction and rate of carbon’s transfer between pools (e.g., the movement of carbon from the atmosphere into forest trees during photosynthesis). This document, the Second State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR2), examines the patterns of carbon stocks and fluxes—collectively called the “carbon cycle.” Emphasis is given to these patterns in specific sectors (e.g., agriculture and energy) and ecosystems (e.g., forests and coastal waters) and to the response of the carbon cycle to human activity. The purpose of SOCCR2 is to assess the current state of the North American carbon cycle and to present recent advances in understanding the factors that influence it. Concentrating on North America—Canada, the United States, and Mexico—the report describes carbon cycling for air, land, inland waters (streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs), and coastal waters (see Figure ES.1, p. 23). The questions framing the publication A U.S. Carbon Cycle Science Plan (Michalak et al., 2011) inspired development of three slightly modified questions that guide SOCCR2’s content and focus on North America in a global context: How have natural processes and human actions affected the global carbon cycle on land, in the atmosphere, in the ocean and other aquatic systems, and at ecosystem interfaces (e.g., coastal, wetland, and urban-rural)? How have socioeconomic trends affected atmospheric levels of the primary carbon-containing gases, carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4)? How have species, ecosystems, natural resources, and human systems been impacted by increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations, associated changes in climate, and carbon management decisions and practices? SOCCR2 synthesizes the most recent understanding of carbon cycling in North America, assessing new carbon cycle findings and information, the state of knowledge regarding core methods used to study the carbon cycle, and future research needed to best inform carbon management and policy options. Focusing on scientific developments in the decade since the First State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR1; CCSP 2007), SOCCR2 summarizes the past, current, and projected state of carbon sources, sinks, and natural processes, as well as contributions by human activities. In addition to CO2 and CH4, the report sometimes discusses nitrous oxide (N2O), a GHG associated with activities and processes that affect fluxes of carbon gases.1 SOCCR2 also describes improvements in analysis tools; developments in decision support; and new insights into ecosystem carbon cycling, human causes of changes in the carbon cycle, and social science perspectives on carbon. Since publication of SOCCR1, coordinated research from agencies in the three North American countries has enabled innovative observational, analytical, and modeling capabilities to further advance understanding of the North American carbon cycle (see Appendix D: Carbon Measurement Approaches and Accounting Frameworks, p. 834). Some of the report’s main conclusions, based on the Key Findings of each chapter, are highlighted in Box ES.1, Main Findings of SOCCR2, p. 24.

Report↗
USGS1974

Water resources data for Arizona, water year 1973: Part 1. Surface water records

Surface-water records for the 1973 water year for Arizona, including records of streamflow or reservoir storage at gaging stations, partial-record stations, and miscellaneous sites, are given in this report and their locations shown in figures 1, 3, and 4. Records for a few pertinent gaging stations in bordering States also are included. The records were collected and computed by the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey under the direction of H. M. Babcock, district chief. These data represent that portion of the National Water Data System collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and cooperating State and Federal agencies in Arizona. Beginning with the 1961 water year, surface-water records have been released by the Geological Survey in annual reports on a State boundary basis. Distribution of these reports is limited; they are designed primarily for rapid release of data shortly after the end of the water year to meet local needs. Records of discharge and stage of streams and canals and contents and stage of lakes and reservoirs are published in a series of U.S. Geological Survey water-supply papers entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States." Through September 30, 1960, these water-supply papers were in an annual series and since then are in a 5-year series. More information is given under the heading "Publications."

Arizona↗
USGS2013

Fish depth distributions in the Lower Mississippi River

A substantial body of literature exists about depth distribution of fish in oceans, lakes and reservoirs, but less is known about fish depth distribution in large rivers. Most of the emphasis on fish distributions in rivers has focused on longitudinal and latitudinal spatial distributions. Knowledge on depth distribution is necessary to understand species and community habitat needs. Considering this void, our goal was to identify patterns in fish benthic distribution along depth gradients in the Lower Mississippi River. Fish were collected over 14 years in depths down to 27 m. Fish exhibited non-random depth distributions that varied seasonally and according to species. Species richness was highest in shallow water, with about 50% of the 62 species detected no longer collected in water deeper than 8 m and about 75% no longer collected in water deeper than 12 m. Although richness was highest in shallow water, most species were not restricted to shallow water. Rather, most species used a wide range of depths. A weak depth zonation occurred, not as strong as that reported for deep oceans and lakes. Larger fish tended to occur in deeper water during the high-water period of an annual cycle, but no correlation was evident during the low-water period. The advent of landscape ecology has guided river research to search for spatial patterns along the length of the river and associated floodplains. Our results suggest that fish assemblages in large rivers are also structured vertically.

Lower Mississippi River↗
USGS2008

Growth, condition, diet, and consumption rates of northern pike in three Arizona reservoirs

Northern pike (Esox lucius L.) introductions are controversial in the western United States due to suspected impacts they might have on established sport fisheries and potential illegal introductions. Tbree Arizona reservoirs, Parker Canyon Lake, Upper Lake Mary and Long Lake were sampled to examine the diet, consumption dynamics, and growth of northern pike. Northern pike diets varied by season and reservoir. In Parker Canyon Lake, diets were dominated by rainbow trout in winter and spring and bluegill and green sunfish in the fall. In Long Lake the northern pike ate crayfish in spring and early summer and switched to young of the year common carp in summer and fall. Black crappie, golden shiners, and crayfish were the major prey in Upper Lake Mary during spring, but they switched to stocked rainbow trout in the fall. Northern pike growth was in the high range of growth reported throughout the United States. Estimated northern pike specific consumption rate (scr) of rainbow trout (g/g/d ?? 10-6) was greatest in Upper Lake Mary (scr = 329.1 ?? 23.7 g/g/d ?? 10-6) where stocked fingerling (<120 mm total length [TL]) rainbow trout were most vulnerable to these predators, compared to larger (>280 mm TL) rainbow trout stocked in Long Lake (scr = 1.4 ?? 0.1 g/g/d ?? 10-6) and Parker Canyon Lake (scr = 287.2 ?? 15.1 g/g/d ?? 10-6) where catchable-sized rainbow trout were stocked. Managers should consider the cost-benefits of stocking fish >200 mm TL in lakes containing northern pike. ?? Copyright by the North American Lake Management Society 2008.

Lake and Reservoir Management↗
USGS1973

Water resources data for Wyoming, water year 1972; part 1, surface water records

Surface-water records for the 1972 water year for Wyoming, including records of streamflow or reservoir storage at gaging stations, partial-record stations, and miscellaneous sites, are given in this report. The locations of the gaging stations and partial-record stations are shown in figures 1 and 2. Records for a few pertinent gaging stations in bordering States also are included. These data represent that portion of the National Water Data System collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and cooperating State and Federal agencies in Wyoming. The records were collected and computed by the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey under the direction of Robert L. Cushman, district chief. Wyoming district personnel who contributed significantly to the collection and preparation of data included in this report were: S.A. Druse, D. J. O'Connell, G. S. Craig, Jr., G. W. Armentrout, Jr., H. W. Lowham, B. H. Ringen, P. B. McCollam, C. F. Obert, W. R. Glass, T.W. Custis, R. L. Muench, J. 0. Ragsdale, M. D. Stevens, J. M. Johnson, and J. L. Lynch. Through September 30, 1960, the records of discharge and stage of streams and canals, and contents and stage of lakes or reservoirs, were published in an annual series of U.S. Geological Survey water-supply papers entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States." Beginning with the 1961 water year, surface-water records have been released by the Geological Survey in annual reports on a State-boundary basis. Distribution of these reports is limited; they are designed primarily for rapid release of data shortly after the end of the water year to meet local needs. Records of discharge and reservoir storage for 1961-65 have been published in a Geological Survey water-supply paper series entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States 1961-65." Records of discharge and reservoir storage for 1966-70 also will be published in a Geological Survey water-supply paper series entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States 1966-70."

Wyoming↗
USGS1973

Water resources data for Kansas, water year 1972; Part 1, Surface water records

Surface-water records for the 1972 water year for Kansas, including records of streamflow or reservoir storage at gaging stations and partial-record stations, are given in this report. The locations of the stations are on figures 1 and 2. Records for a few pertinent gaging stations in bordering States also are included. These data represent that part of the National Water Data System collected by the U. S. Geological Survey and cooperating State and Federal agencies in Kansas. The records were collected and computed by the Water Resources Division of the U. S. Geological Survey under the direction of C. W. Lane, district chief. Kansas district personnel who contributed significantly to the collection and preparation of data included in this report were: J. L. Ebling, C. 0. Geiger, K. D. Medina, L. E. Stuliken, C. 0. Peek, J. D. Craig, L. L. Jones, A. T. Klamm, J. P. Marshall, C. W. Kennedy, W. J. Carswell, D. L. Lacock, G. G. Quy II, J. T. Religa, R. D. Thomas, S. V. Bond, S. T. Green, C. G. Sauer, A. B. Evans, A. F. Browning, M. J. Goetz, M. L. Penny, and M. Pabst. Through September 30, 1960, the records of discharge and stage of streams and canals and contents and stage of lakes or reservoirs were published in an annual series of U. S. Geological Survey water-supply papers entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States." Beginning with the 1961 water year, surface-water records have been released by the Geological Survey in annual reports on a State-boundary basis. Distribution of these reports is limited; they are designed primarily for rapid release of data shortly after the end of the water year to meet local needs. The discharge and reservoir storage records for 1961-65 also have been published in a Geological Survey water-supply paper series entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States 1961-65."

Kansas↗
USGS2009

Water Budgets of the Walker River Basin and Walker Lake, California and Nevada

The Walker River is the main source of inflow to Walker Lake, a closed-basin lake in west-central Nevada. The only outflow from Walker Lake is evaporation from the lake surface. Between 1882 and 2008, upstream agricultural diversions resulted in a lake-level decline of more than 150 feet and storage loss of 7,400,000 acre-feet. Evaporative concentration increased dissolved solids from 2,500 to 17,000 milligrams per liter. The increase in salinity threatens the survival of the Lahontan cutthroat trout, a native species listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. This report describes streamflow in the Walker River basin and an updated water budget of Walker Lake with emphasis on the lower Walker River basin downstream from Wabuska, Nevada. Water budgets are based on average annual flows for a 30-year period (1971-2000). Total surface-water inflow to the upper Walker River basin upstream from Wabuska was estimated to be 387,000 acre-feet per year (acre-ft/yr). About 223,000 acre-ft/yr (58 percent) is from the West Fork of the Walker River; 145,000 acre-ft/yr (37 percent) is from the East Fork of the Walker River; 17,000 acre-ft/yr (4 percent) is from the Sweetwater Range; and 2,000 acre-ft/yr (less than 1 percent) is from the Bodie Mountains, Pine Grove Hills, and western Wassuk Range. Outflow from the upper Walker River basin is 138,000 acre-ft/yr at Wabuska. About 249,000 acre-ft/yr (64 percent) of inflow is diverted for irrigation, transpired by riparian vegetation, evaporates from lakes and reservoirs, and recharges alluvial aquifers. Stream losses in Antelope, Smith, and Bridgeport Valleys are due to evaporation from reservoirs and agricultural diversions with negligible stream infiltration or riparian evapotranspiration. Diversion rates in Antelope and Smith Valleys were estimated to be 3.0 feet per year (ft/yr) in each valley. Irrigated fields receive an additional 0.8 ft of precipitation, groundwater pumpage, or both for a total applied-water rate of 3.8 ft/yr. The average corrected total evapotranspiration rate for alfalfa is 3.2 ft/yr so about 0.6 ft/yr (15 percent) flushes salts from the soil. The diversion rate in Bridgeport Valley was estimated to be 1.1 ft/yr and precipitation is 1.3 ft/yr. The total applied-water rate of 2.4 ft/yr is used to irrigate pasture grass. The total applied water rate in the East Fork of the Walker River and Mason Valley was estimated to be 4.8 ft/yr in each valley. The higher rate likely is due to appreciable infiltration, riparian evapotranspiration, or both. Assuming a diversion rate of 3.0 ft/yr, stream loss due to infiltration and riparian evapotranspiration is about 3,000 acre-ft/yr along the East Fork of the Walker River and 14,000 acre-ft/yr in Mason Valley. In the lower Walker River basin, overall and groundwater budgets were calculated for Wabuska to Schurz, Nev., and Schurz to Walker Lake. An overall water budget was calculated for the combined reaches. Imbalances in the water budgets range from 1 to 7 percent, which are insignificant statistically, so the water budgets balance. Total inflow to the Wabuska-Walker Lake reach from the river and others sources is 140,000 acre-ft/yr. Stream and subsurface discharge into the northern end of Walker Lake totals 110,000 acre-ft/yr. About 30,000 acre-ft/yr is lost on the Walker River Indian Reservation from agricultural evapotranspiration, evapotranspiration by native and invasive vegetation, domestic pumpage, and subsurface outflow from the basin through Double Spring and the Wabuska lineament. Alfalfa fields in the upper Walker River basin are lush and have an average corrected total evapotranspiration rate of 3.2 ft/yr. Alfalfa fields on the Walker River Indian Reservation are not as lush and have a total corrected evapotranspiration rate of 1.6-2.1 ft/yr, which partly could be due to alkaline soils that were submerged by Pleistocene Lake Lahontan. The total applied-water rate is 7.0 ft/yr, almost twice the

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS1974

Water resources data for Wyoming, water year 1973; part 1, surface water records

Surface-water records for the 1973 water year for Wyoming, including records of streamflow or reservoir storage at gaging stations, partial-record stations, and miscellaneous sites, are given in this report. The locations of the gaging stations and partial-record stations are shown in figures 1 and 2. Records for a few pertinent gaging stations in bordering States also are included. These data represent that portion of the National Water Data System collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and cooperating State and Federal agencies in Wyoming. The records were collected and computed by the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey under the direction of Robert L. Cushman, district chief. Wyoming district personnel who contributed significantly to the collection and preparation of data included in this report were: S.A. Druse, D. J. O'Connell, G. S. Craig, Jr., G. W. Armentrout, Jr., H. W. Lowham, J. G. Rankl, P. B. McCollam, C. F. Obert, W. R. Glass, T.W. Custis, R. L. Muench, J. O. Ragsdale, M. D. Stevens, R. C. Bauman, J. L. Lynch, and S. L. Green. Beginning with the 1961 water year, streamflow records and related data have been released by the Geological Survey in annual reports on a State-boundary basis. These reports are for limited distribution and are designed primarily for rapid release of data shortly after the end of the water year. Records of discharge and stage of streams and canals, and contents and stage of lakes or reservoirs, are published in a series of U.S. Geological Survey water-supply papers entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States." Through September 30, 1960, these water-supply papers were in an annual series and since then are in a 5-year series. More information is given under the heading "Publications" on page 9.

Wyoming↗
USGS2007

Lack of size selectivity for paddlefish captured in hobbled gillnets

A commercial fishery for paddlefish Polyodon spathula caviar exists in Kentucky Lake, a reservoir on the lower Tennessee River. A 152-mm (bar-measure) minimum mesh size restriction on entanglement gear was enacted in 2002 and the minimum size limit was increased to 864 mm eye-fork length to reduce the possibility of recruitment overfishing. Paddlefish were sampled in 2003-2004 using experimental monofilament gillnets with panels of 89, 102, 127, 152, 178, and 203-mm meshes and the efficacy of the mesh size restriction was evaluated. Following the standards of commercial gear used in that fishery, nets were "hobbled" (i.e., 128 m ?? 3.6 m nets were tied down to 2.4 m; 91 m ?? 9.1 m nets were tied down to 7.6 m). The mean lengths of paddlefish (Ntotal = 576 fish) captured in each mesh were similar among most meshes and bycatch rates of sublegal fish did not vary with mesh size. Selectivity curves could not be modeled because the mean and modal lengths of fish captured in each mesh did not increase with mesh size. Ratios of fish girth to mesh perimeter (G:P) for individual fish were often less than 1.0 as a result of the largest meshes capturing small paddlefish. It is unclear whether lack of size selectivity for paddlefish was because the gillnets were hobbled, the unique morphology of paddlefish, or the fact that they swim with their mouths agape when filter feeding. The lack of size selectivity by hobbled gillnets fished in Kentucky Lake means that managers cannot influence the size of paddlefish captured by commercial gillnet gear by changing minimum mesh size regulations. ?? 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Fisheries Research↗
USGS1975

Water resources data for Wyoming, water year 1974

Surface-water records for the 1974 water year for Wyoming, including records of streamflow or reservoir storage at gaging stations, partial-record stations, and miscellaneous sites, are given in this report. The locations of the gaging stations and partial-record stations are shown in figures 1 and 2. Records for a few pertinent gaging stations in bordering States also are included. These data represent that portion of the National Water Data System collected by the U.S. Geological Survey and cooperating State and Federal agencies in Wyoming. The records were collected and computed by the Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey under the direction of Sam W. West, district chief. Wyoming district personnel who contributed significantly to the collection and preparation of data included in this report were: S. A. Druse, D. J. O'Connell, G. S. Craig, Jr., G. W. Armentrout, Jr., H. W. Lowham, J. G. Rankl, P. B. McCollam, C. F. Obert, W. R. Glass, D. J. Pangburn, T. W. Custis, R. L. Muench, J. O. Ragsdale, M. D. Stevens, R. C. Bauman, D. J. Wangsness, L. W. Lenfest, B. C. Pedersen, M. T. O'Grady, and S. L. Green. Beginning with the 1961 water year, streamflow records and related data have been released by the Geological Survey in annual reports on a State-boundary basis. These reports are for limited distribution and are designed primarily for rapid release of data shortly after the end of the water year. Records of discharge and stage of streams and canals, and contents and stage of lakes or reservoirs, are published in a series of U.S. Geological Survey water-supply papers entitled "Surface Water Supply of the United States." Through September 30, 1960, these water-supply papers were in an annual series and since then are in a 5-year series. More information is given under the heading "Publications" on page 9.

Wyoming↗
USGS2013

Suspended-sediment loads and reservoir sediment trap efficiency for Clinton Lake, Kansas, 2010-12

Continuous streamflow and turbidity data collected from October 1, 2010, to September 30, 2012, at a site upstream and downstream from Clinton Lake, Kansas, were used to compute the total suspended-sediment load delivered to and released from the reservoir as well as the sediment trap efficiency for the reservoir. Ongoing sedimentation is inhibiting the ability of Clinton Lake to serve several purposes including flood control, water supply, and recreation. The inflow suspended-sediment load was substantially larger than the outflow load and most of the suspended-sediment load was delivered during short-term, high-discharge periods. Respectively, the total 2-year inflow and outflow suspended-sediment loads were computed to be 44.4 and 1.49 million pounds. Sediment trap efficiency for the reservoir was estimated to be 97 percent. The mean annual suspended-sediment yield from the upstream basin was estimated to be 60,500 pounds per square mile. Because this study was completed during a drought, the estimated inflow suspended-sediment load and suspended-sediment yield likely are substantially less than what would occur during a period of average or above average precipitation and runoff.

Kansas↗
USGS1939

Artesian-water levels and interference between artesian wells in the vicinity of Lehi, Utah

In the vicinity of Lehi, Utah, about 25 miles south of Salt Lake City, supplies of artesian water are obtained at depths of 75 to 750 feet from beds of sand and gravel of Pleistocene age. Individual beds are probably lenticular and irregular in shape, as is characteristic of the stream and lake deposits in many parts of the Lake Bonneville Basin. The artesian supplies are obtained from aquifers or groups of aquifers that are more thoroughly separated by impermeable materials than the artesian aquifers of some other ground-water areas in Utah. Most of the wells are between 130 and 200 feet deep. The artesian area in the vicinity of Lehi is only a small part of a ground-water unit that probably includes most of Utah Lake Valley. The ground-water reservoir in Utah Lake Valley was seriously depleted after the years of subnormal precipitation that culminated in the drought of 1934. However, in the vicinity of Lehi the static levels in 1934 were about the same as during 1904, a year which marked the culmination of a previous drought period. The water levels in the summer of 1935 were about the same as in 1934, indicating that the recharge to the ground-water reservoir was again sufficient to balance the discharge; and during the following year there was a marked rise of the water level in all wells, commonly 5 to 10 feet in amount. The static levels in the vicinity of Lehi fluctuate each year through a range of as much as 15 feet and are ordinarily highest during March or April and lowest during August or September. This fluctuation is due in part to the closing of flowing irrigation wells during the winter. A series of tests was made to determine the extent of interference between artesian wells. Among the wells that are between 130 and 200 feet deep, the operation of certain wells was found to cause a change in the static level in wells as much as 1 1/5 miles distant. The operation of these shallower wells, however, had no apparent effect upon the static level in the wells more than about 200 feet deep nor did the operation of these deeper wells appear to affect the static level in the shallow wells. The deep and shallow aquifers thus appear to be separated by fairly continuous beds of impermeable material.

Utah↗
USGS1974

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 5: lower Housatonic River basin

The 557 square miles of the lower Housatonic River basin in western Connecticut include the basins of two major tributaries, the Pomperaug and Naugatuck Rivers. Nearly all water is derived from precipitation, which averaged 47 inches per year during 1931-60, In this period an additional 570 billion gallons of water per year entered the basin in the main stem of the Housatonic River at Lake Lillinonah, and some water was imported by water-supply systems from outside the basin. Almost half the precipitation--21.6 inches--was lost from the basin by evapotranspiration. Except for small amounts exported, the remainder discharged as runoff and underflow into Long Island Sound. Variations in streamflow at 6 long-term continuous-record gaging stations are summarized in standardized graphs and tables that can be used to estimate streamflow characteristics at other sites. For example, mean flow and two low-flow characteristics, the 7-day annual minimum flow for 2-year and 10-year recurrence intervals, have been determined for many partial-record stations throughout the basin. Of the 37 principal lakes, ponds, and reservoirs in the basin, 6 have usable storage of more than 1 billion gallons. The “maximum safe draft rate” (described in: “Storage of Water in Lakes and Reservoirs”) of the largest of these, Thomaston Reservoir near Thomaston, is 75.6 million gallons per day for the 10-year and 20-year recurrence intervals of annual lowest mean flow. Floods have occurred during every month, at one time or another. The two greatest floods on the Naugatuck River in historical time occurred 2 months apart in 1955. The larger, in August, had a peak of 106,000 cfs (cubic feet per second) at Beacon Falls. Since then, the likelihood of major floods has been considerably reduced by a program of flood control in the basin. Water can be obtained from three aquifers under-lying the basin-stratified drift, till, and bedrock. Stratified drift covers about 16 percent of the basin, mostly in valleys and lowlands, and its saturated part generally ranges in thickness from 10 feet in small valleys to 200 feet in the Housatonic River valley. Its transmissivity ranges from 0 to 47,000 ft 2 /day (feet shared per day). Till, deposited directly by glacial ice, forms a widespread but discontinuous mantle over bedrock in most upland areas and extends beneath stratified drift in lowlands; it ranges in thickness from 0 to 200 feet. The median value of 31 published determinations of hydraulic conductivity of till in southern New England is 0.67 ft/day and ranges from 0.013 to 29 ft/day. Crystalline bedrock underlies most of the basin and is composed principally of granite, gneiss, and schist. Sedimentary volcanic bedrock underlies only the Pomperaug River basin. Regardless of rock type, water is obtained mostly from fractures. Streambed deposits are significant features of the hydrogeologic system because they affect the amount of water from streams and lakes that can be induced to infiltrate aquifers. Based on field tests, characteristic values of vertical hydraulic conductivity of streambed deposits are 0.40 ft/day for fine-grained deposits and 14 ft/day for gravelly deposits. Ground-water supplies generally range in yield from several millions of gallons per day from large well fields to 1 gpm (gallons per minute) from single wells. Large supplies, with yields of 100 gpm or more from individual wells, are most commonly obtained from stratified drift. Yields to be expected from screened wells tapping this aquifer can be calculated by use of a series of graphs in conjunction with estimates of transmissivity and aquifer thickness. The yields of 14 principal ground-water reservoirs are estimated from aquifer characteristics and also from the amount of water that can be obtained from aquifer storage, from interception or runoff, and from infiltration of streamflow at low-flow conditions, using a hypothetical well-field arrangement for each reservoir. It is assumed that induced infiltration is restricted to an amount equal to the 7-day annual minimum stream-flow for a 2-year recurrence interval. Yields range from 1.4 to 15 mgd (million gallons per day) during periods of no recharge, and from 2.0 to 17 mgd during recharge periods. Small to moderate water supplies can be obtained from any of the aquifers under suitable conditions. For example, data from 294 wells in the basin indicate that yields of a few gallons per minute can be obtained from bedrock at most sites. The likelihood of obtaining an adequate domestic supply is slightly greater in granite than in schist and also is greater where the overburden is stratified drift rather than till. Chemical analyses of precipitation samples collected monthly from five stations in the basin during a 9-month period in 1966 show that rainfall is acidic and that sulfate is the dominant anion, probably because of industrial fumes and smoke within and near the basin. Where unaffected by man’s activities, water in the basin is generally low in dissolved-solids concentration, is of the calcium magnesium bicarbonate type, and is soft to moderately hard. In general, streamflow is less mineralized than ground water, particularly when it consists largely of direct runoff. However, streamflow becomes more highly mineralized during low-flow conditions, when most of it consists of more highly mineralized water discharged from aquifers. The median value of dissolved-solids concentration of water at 22 stream sites was 51 mg/1 (milligrams per liter) during high flow, and 68 mg/1 during low flow within the study period. Iron and manganese occur naturally in objectionable concentrations in parts of the basin, particularly in streams draining swamps and in water from bedrock containing iron and manganese-bearing minerals. Man’s activities have degraded the quality of water in streams in much of the basin, except in the Pomperaug subbasin. In the Naugatuck River basin, the degradation in quality is shown by wide and erratic changes in dissolved-solids concentration, excessive amounts of certain trace elements, a low dissolved oxygen content, and abnormally high temperatures. Ground water is degraded principally by induced infiltration of stream water containing chemical wastes, by wastes stored on the ground and by effluents from septic tanks. Below its confluence with the Naugatuck River, much of the Housatonic River and adjoining marshes, wetlands, and aquifers contain salt water. Measurements of specific conductance during low-flow conditions in 1969 indicate that the dissolved-solids concentration of water in the estuary ranged from 210 mg/1 near Twomile Island to 20,000 mg/1 near Long Island Sound. The quantity and quality of water in the basin are satisfactory for a wide variety of uses, and, with suitable treatment, the water may be used for most purposes. In 1967, the total amount of water used in the basin was about 194 billion gallons. About 90 percent of this was used for industrial purposes, and 95 percent of the industrial water was obtained from surface-water sources. In the same year, 17 municipal and private water-supply systems supplied water of satisfactory quality to about three-fourths of the population.

Connecticut↗
USGS2016

Spatial and temporal variation in microcystins occurrence in wadeable streams in the southeastern USA

Despite historical observations of potential microcystin-producing cyanobacteria (including Leptolyngbya , Phormidium , Pseudoanabaena , and Anabaena species) in 74% of headwater streams in Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina (USA) from 1993 to 2011, fluvial cyanotoxin occurrence has not been systematically assessed in the southeastern United States. To begin to address this data gap, a spatial reconnaissance of fluvial microcystin concentrations was conducted in 75 wadeable streams in the Piedmont region (southeastern USA) during June 2014. Microcystins were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (limit = 0.10 µg/L) in 39% of the streams with mean, median, and maximum detected concentrations of 0.29 µg/L, 0.11 µg/L, and 3.2 µg/L, respectively. Significant (α = 0.05) correlations were observed between June 2014 microcystin concentrations and stream flow, total nitrogen to total phosphorus ratio, and water temperature; but each of these factors explained 38% or less of the variability in fluvial microcystins across the region. Temporal microcystin variability was assessed monthly through October 2014 in 5 of the streams where microcystins were observed in June and in 1 reference location; microcystins were repeatedly detected in all but the reference stream. Although microcystin concentrations in the present study did not exceed World Health Organization recreational guidance thresholds, their widespread occurrence demonstrates the need for further investigation of possible in-stream environmental health effects as well as potential impacts on downstream lakes and reservoirs. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;9999:1–7. Published 2016 Wiley Periodicals Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.

Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South ↗
USGS2021

Grass carp reproduction in small tributaries of Truman Reservoir, Missouri: Implications for establishment in novel habitats

Substantial work has been conducted to estimate the river length required for recruitment of invasive Grass Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella and bigheaded carps (Bighead Carp Hypophthalmichthys nobilis and Silver Carp H. molitrix ); however, the distance upstream and size of stream required for spawning remain unclear. Adult Grass Carp are regularly captured in Harry S. Truman Reservoir, Missouri, although there have been only unconfirmed sightings of Silver Carp. Fertile diploid Grass Carp are used legally for vegetation control in Missouri; however, it is uncertain whether Grass Carp in Harry S. Truman Reservoir are the result of natural reproduction or escapees. We used ichthyoplankton tows and environmental DNA (eDNA) to investigate which carp species were present in the reservoir basin and to determine whether these carps were spawning in reservoir tributaries. Grass Carp eggs were collected in four of five tributaries during June 2014. We did not detect eggs, larvae, or eDNA of Bighead Carp or Silver Carp. The occurrence of Grass Carp eggs generally coincided with rapid increases in discharge and turbidity. These tributaries may be the smallest rivers worldwide in which spawning of Grass Carp has been documented. We infer from the developmental stages captured and the distance from the reservoir that sufficient river length exists for egg survival. These results have broad implications concerning the establishment of Grass Carp in other novel habitats, including other reservoirs and lake basins, smaller rivers, and the Laurentian Great Lakes ecosystem.

Missouri↗
USGS2016

Flood effects provide evidence of an alternate stable state from dam management on the Upper Missouri River

We examine how historic flooding in 2011 affected the geomorphic adjustments created by dam regulation along the approximately 120 km free flowing reach of the Upper Missouri River bounded upstream by the Garrison Dam (1953) and downstream by Lake Oahe Reservoir (1959) near the City of Bismarck, ND, USA. The largest flood since dam regulation occurred in 2011. Flood releases from the Garrison Dam began in May 2011 and lasted until October, peaking with a flow of more than 4200 m 3 s −1 . Channel cross-section data and aerial imagery before and after the flood were compared with historic rates of channel change to assess the relative impact of the flood on the river morphology. Results indicate that the 2011 flood maintained trends in island area with the loss of islands in the reach just below the dam and an increase in island area downstream. Channel capacity changes varied along the Garrison Segment as a result of the flood. The thalweg, which has been stable since the mid-1970s, did not migrate. And channel morphology, as defined by a newly developed shoaling metric, which quantifies the degree of channel braiding, indicates significant longitudinal variability in response to the flood. These results show that the 2011 flood exacerbates some geomorphic trends caused by the dam while reversing others. We conclude that the presence of dams has created an alternate geomorphic and related ecological stable state, which does not revert towards pre-dam conditions in response to the flood of record. This suggests that management of sediment transport dynamics as well as flow modification is necessary to restore the Garrison Segment of the Upper Missouri River towards pre-dam conditions and help create or maintain habitat for endangered species. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Upper Missouri River↗
USGS2017

Ecological impacts of winter water level drawdowns on lake littoral zones: A review

Freshwater littoral zones harbor diverse ecological communities and serve numerous ecosystem functions that are controlled, in part, by natural water level fluctuations. However, human alteration of lake hydrologic regimes beyond natural fluctuations threaten littoral zone ecological integrity. One type of hydrologic alteration in lakes is winter water level drawdowns, which are frequently employed for hydropower, flood control, and macrophyte control, among other purposes. Here, we synthesize the abiotic and biotic responses to annual and novel winter water level drawdowns in littoral zones of lakes and reservoirs. The dewatering, freezing, and increased erosion of exposed lakebeds drive changes in the littoral zone. Shoreline-specific physicochemical conditions such as littoral slope and shoreline exposure further induce modifications. Loss of fine sediment decreases nutrient availability over time, but desiccation may promote a temporary nutrient pulse upon re-inundation. Annual winter drawdowns can decrease taxonomic richness of macrophytes and benthic invertebrates and shift assemblage composition to favor taxa with r-selected life history strategies and with functional traits resistant to direct and indirect drawdown effects. Fish assemblages, though less directly affected by winter drawdowns (except where there is critically low dissolved oxygen), experience negative effects via indirect pathways like decreased food resources and spawning habitat. We identify eight general research gaps to guide future research that could improve our understanding about the complex effects of winter drawdowns on littoral zone ecology.

Aquatic Sciences↗
USGS2018

River network saturation concept: factors influencing the balance of biogeochemical supply and demand of river networks

River networks modify material transfer from land to ocean. Understanding the factors regulating this function for different gaseous, dissolved, and particulate constituents is critical to quantify the local and global effects of climate and land use change. We propose the River Network Saturation (RNS) concept as a generalization of how river network regulation of material fluxes declines with increasing flows due to imbalances between supply and demand at network scales. River networks have a tendency to become saturated (supply ≫ demand) under higher flow conditions because supplies increase faster than sink processes. However, the flow thresholds under which saturation occurs depends on a variety of factors, including the inherent process rate for a given constituent and the abundance of lentic waters such as lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and fluvial wetlands within the river network. As supply increases, saturation at network scales is initially limited by previously unmet demand in downstream aquatic ecosystems. The RNS concept describes a general tendency of river network function that can be used to compare the fate of different constituents among river networks. New approaches using nested in situ high-frequency sensors and spatially extensive synoptic techniques offer the potential to test the RNS concept in different settings. Better understanding of when and where river networks saturate for different constituents will allow for the extrapolation of aquatic function to broader spatial scales and therefore provide information on the influence of river function on continental element cycles and help identify policy priorities.

Biogeochemistry↗