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R.L. Whitehead

Publications and source records attributed to R.L. Whitehead.

14 recordsLinked to original sources
USGS1996

Ground Water Atlas of the United States: Segment 8, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming

The States of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming compose the 392,764-square-mile area of Segment 8, which is in the north-central part of the continental United States. The area varies topographically from the high rugged mountain ranges of the Rocky Mountains in western Montana and Wyoming to the gently undulating surface of the Central Lowland in eastern North Dakota and South Dakota (fig. 1). The Black Hills in southwestern South Dakota and northeastern Wyoming interrupt the uniformity of the intervening Great Plains. Segment 8 spans the Continental Divide, which is the drainage divide that separates streams that generally flow westward from those that generally flow eastward. The area of Segment 8 is drained by the following major rivers or river systems: the Green River drains southward to join the Colorado River, which ultimately discharges to the Gulf of California; the Clark Fork and the Kootenai Rivers drain generally westward by way of the Columbia River to discharge to the Pacific Ocean; the Missouri River system and the North Platte River drain eastward and southeastward to the Mississippi River, which discharges to the Gulf of Mexico; and the Red River of the North and the Souris River drain northward through Lake Winnipeg to ultimately discharge to Hudson Bay in Canada. These rivers and their tributaries are an important source of water for public-supply, domestic and commercial, agricultural, and industrial uses. Much of the surface water has long been appropriated for agricultural use, primarily irrigation, and for compliance with downstream water pacts. Reservoirs store some of the surface water for flood control, irrigation, power generation, and recreational purposes. Surface water is not always available when and where it is needed, and ground water is the only other source of supply. Ground water is obtained primarily from wells completed in unconsolidated-deposit aquifers that consist mostly of sand and gravel, and from wells completed in semi-consolidated- and consolidated-rock aquifers, chiefly sandstone and limestone. Some wells withdraw water from volcanic rocks, igneous and metamorphic rocks, or fractured fine-grained sedimentary rocks, such as shale; however, wells completed in these types of rocks generally yield only small volumes of water. Most wells in the four-State area of Segment 8 are on privately owned land (fig. 2). Agriculture, primarily irrigation, is one of the largest uses of ground water. The irrigation generally is on lowlands close to streams (fig. 3). Lowlands within a few miles of major streams usually are irrigated with surface water that is diverted by gravity flow from the main stream or a reservoir and transported through a canal system. Surface water also is pumped to irrigate land that gravity systems cannot supply. In addition, ground water is pumped from large-capacity wells to supplement surface water during times of drought or during seasons of the year when surface water is in short supply. Ground water is the only source of water for irrigation in much of the segment. The thickness and permeability of aquifers in the area of Segment 8 vary considerably, as do yields of wells completed in the aquifers. Ground-water levels and artesian pressures (hydraulic head) have declined significantly in some places as a result of excessive withdrawals by wells. State governments have taken steps to control the declines by enacting programs that either limit the number of additional wells that can be completed in a particular aquifer or prevent further ground-water development altogether. The demand for water is directly related to the distribution of people. In 1990, Montana had a population of 799,065; North Dakota, 638,800; South Dakota, 696,004; and Wyoming, 453,588. The more densely populated areas are on lowlands near major streams. Many of the mountain, desert, and upland areas lack major population centers, particularly in Montana and Wyoming, where use of much of the land is controlled by the Federal Government and withdrawal of ground water is restricted. Average annual precipitation (1951-80) in Segment 8 ranges from less than 8 inches in parts of Montana and Wyoming to more than 40 inches in some of the mountainous areas (fig. 4). Most storms move eastward through Segment 8 and are particularly common during the winter months. Moisture that evaporates from the Pacific Ocean is absorbed by eastward- moving air. As the moisture-laden air masses move eastward, they rise and cool as they encounter mountain ranges and lose some of their moisture to condensation. Consequently, the western sides of mountain ranges receive the most precipitation, much of it as snow during the winter months. In contrast, the eastern sides of some of the higher mountain ranges are in rain shadows and receive little precipitation. East of the Continental Divide, precipitation that falls during many summer storms results from northward-moving, moisture-laden air masses from the Gulf of Mexico. These air masses move northward when the polar front recedes; accordingly, a major part of the annual precipitation falls on the plains during the growing season. Average annual precipitation minus the total of average annual runoff plus evapotranspiration (the combination of evaporation and transpiration by plants) is the amount of water potentially available for recharge to the aquifers. Average annual runoff (1951-80) in the area of Segment 8 varies greatly, and the distribution of runoff (fig. 5) generally parallels that of precipitation. In arid and semiarid areas of the segment, most precipitation replenishes soil moisture, evaporates, or is transpired by vegetation, and only a small part of the precipitation is left to maintain streamflow or recharge aquifers. In wetter areas of the segment, much of the precipitation runs off the land surface directly to perennial streams. Because a smaller percentage of precipitation in wet areas usually is lost to evapotranspiration than in dry areas, more water is, therefore, available to recharge aquifers where more precipitation falls. Precipitation that falls as snow generally does not become runoff until spring thaws begin. Runoff is affected in some areas by reservoirs that have been constructed on major streams to mitigate flooding and to store water for irrigation, electrical power generation, and recreation. Water stored in reservoirs during times when runoff is great is subsequently released during drier periods to maintain downstream flow.

Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming↗
USGS1994

Ground Water Atlas of the United States: Segment 7, Idaho, Oregon, Washington

The States of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, which total 248,730 square miles, compose Segment 7 of this Atlas. The area is geologically and topographically diverse and contains a wealth of scenic beauty, natural resources, and ground and surface water that generally are suitable for all uses. Most of the area of Segment 7 is drained by the Columbia River, its tributaries, and other streams that discharge to the Pacific Ocean. Exceptions are those streams that flow to closed basins in southeastern Oregon and northern Nevada and to the Great Salt Lake in northern Utah. The Columbia River is one of the largest rivers in the Nation. The downstream reach of the Columbia River forms most of the border between Oregon and Washington. In 1990, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington had populations of 1.0 million, 2.8 million, and 4.9 million, respectively. The more densely populated parts are in lowland areas and stream valleys. Many of the mountains, the deserts, and the upland areas of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington lack major population centers. Large areas of Idaho and Oregon are uninhabited and are mostly public land (fig. 1) where extensive ground-water development is restricted. Surface water is abundant in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, though not always available when and where needed. In some places, surface water provides much of the water used for public-supply, domestic and commercial, agricultural (primarily irrigation and livestock watering), and industrial purposes. In arid parts of Segment 7, however, surface water has long been fully appropriated, chiefly for irrigation. Ground water is used when and where surface-water supplies are lacking. Ground water is commonly available to shallow wells that are completed in unconsolidated-deposit aquifers that consist primarily of sand and gravel but contain variable quantities of clay and silt. Many large-yield public-supply and irrigation wells and thousands of domestic wells are completed in these types of aquifers, generally in areas of privately owned land (fig. 1). In many places, deeper wells produce water from underlying volcanic rocks, usually basalt. Most irrigation (fig. 2) is on lowlands next to streams and on adjacent terraces. Generally, lowlands within a few miles of a main stream are irrigated with surface water diverted by gravity flow from the main stream or a reservoir and distributed through a system of canals and ditches. In some areas, water is pumped to irrigate lands farther from the stream at a higher altitude. Along the Snake and Columbia Rivers, large pumping systems withdraw billions of gallons of water per day from the rivers to irrigate adjacent uplands that are more than 500 feet higher than the rivers. Elsewhere, irrigation water is obtained from large-capacity wells, where depth to water might exceed 500 feet below land surface. Aquifers in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, as in most other States, differ considerably in thickness and permeability, and well yields differ accordingly. Ground-water levels in a few areas have declined as a result of withdrawals by wells. State governments have taken steps to alleviate declines in some areas by enacting programs that either limit the number of additional wells that can be completed in a particular aquifer (Ground-Water Management Area) or prevent further ground-water development (Critical Ground-Water Area). Segment 7 includes some of the driest parts of the Nation, as well as some of the wettest. Average annual precipitation (1951-80) ranges from less than 10 inches in arid parts of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington to more than 80 inches in the western parts of Oregon and Washington (fig. 3). Most storms generally move eastward through the area. The eastward-moving air absorbs the moisture that evaporates from the Pacific Ocean. As this air encounters the fronts of mountain ranges, it rises, cools, and condenses. Accordingly, the western sides of the mountain ranges receive the most precipitation. Much of the annual precipitation moves directly to streams as overland runoff. Some of the precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, which is the combination of evaporation from the surface and transpiration from the plants. A small part of the precipitation infiltrates the soil and percolates downward to recharge underlying aquifers. Average annual runoff ( 1951-80) in the segment varies considerably (fig. 4), and the distribution of the runoff generally parallels that of precipitation. In the arid and the semiarid parts of Segment 7, most precipitation replenishes soil moisture, evaporates, or is transpired by vegetation. Little is left to maintain streamflow or to recharge aquifers. In the wetter parts, much of the precipitation runs off the land surface to maintain streamflow, and because evaporation is usually less in wetter areas, more water is available to recharge aquifers. Precipitation that falls as snow generally does not become runoff until spring thaws begin. Reservoirs constructed on major streams to mitigate flooding and to store water for irrigation, hydroelectric-power generation, and recreation also affect the timing of runoff. The runoff is stored and subsequently released during drier periods to maintain downstream flow.

Idaho, Oregon, Washington↗
USGS1985

Hydrologic changes associated with the October 28, 1983, Idaho earthquake

Significant hydrologic changes were observed after the magnitude 7.3 earthquake that occurred on October 28, 1983, in central Idaho. Groundwater levels rose by as much as 3 meters near the epicenter. Discharge in many streams and springs increased, in some instances by more than 100%. One warm spring ceased flowing for several days; the flow then resumed and peaked at about nine times its original rate. Available data show no significant changes in water quality following the earthquake. ?? 1985 Birkha??user Verlag.

Pure and Applied Geophysics PAGEOPH↗
USGS1985

Results of geohydrologic test drilling in the eastern Snake River Plain, Gooding County, Idaho

A 1,123-foot test hole was core drilled near Wendell, Idaho, during 1981-82 as part of the Snake River Plain regional aquifer study. An upper basalt unit, an intermediate unconsolidated sedimentary rock unit, and a lower basalt unit were penetrated by the test hole. Drilling verified that the upper several hundred feet of high-resistivity material, as determined by surface electrical soundings, is basalt. Core examination, laboratory analysis, and correlation with other drill holes indicated that the basalt is typical of Quaternary basalt of the Snake River Group. Quaternary basalt in the test hole is 200 feet thick. Correlation with other drill holes and comparison with rock outcrops near the Snake River and in the Snake River canyon suggest that the underlying sediments and lower basalt unit are parts of the Tertiary and Quaternary Glenns Ferry Formation and Tertiary Banbury Basalt. Piezometers in the hole verify upward movement of water in a major discharge area for the regional aquifer. Hydraulic head in the bottom of the hole is about 155 feet higher than the water table. Lithologic sequence in the test hole correlates well with sequences in deep drill holes at scattered locations on the plain. (USGS)

Idaho↗
USGS1979

A proposed ground water quality monitoring network for Idaho

A ground water quality monitoring network is proposed for Idaho. The network comprises 565 sites, 8 of which will require construction of new wells. Frequencies of sampling at the different sites are assigned at quarterly, semiannual, annual, and 5 years. Selected characteristics of the water will be monitored by both laboratory- and field-analysis methods. The network is designed to: (1) Enable water managers to keep abreast of the general quality of the State 's ground water, and (2) serve as a warning system for undesirable changes in ground-water quality. Data were compiled for hydrogeologic conditions, ground-water quality, cultural elements, and pollution sources. A ' hydrologic unit priority index ' is used to rank 84 hydrologic units (river basins or segments of river basins) of the State for monitoring according to pollution potential. Emphasis for selection of monitoring sites is placed on the 15 highest ranked units. The potential for pollution is greatest in areas of privately owned agricultural land. Other areas of pollution potential are residential development, mining and related processes, and hazardous waste disposal. Data are given for laboratory and field analyses, number of site visits, manpower, subsistence, and mileage, from which costs for implementing the network can be estimated. Suggestions are made for data storage and retrieval and for reporting changes in water quality.

Idaho↗
USGS1978

Progress toward a ground-water-quality monitoring network for Idaho

A ground-water-quality monitoring network is being designed for Idaho. The primary objectives of the network are to (1) determine the present quality of the State's ground water, (2) provide continual monitoring of groundwater quality for water-management purposes, and (3) serve as a warning system of undesirable changes in ground-water quality. Data are compiled for geohydrologic conditions, groundwater quality, cultural elements, and pollution sources. A "Hydrologic Unit Priority Index" is calculated from these data to select priority areas for monitoring purposes. New ground-water-quality data were collected where existing data were lacking and at some sites that were previously sampled. Old and new data at common sites correlated well, indicating that the water quality has not changed significantly. Most ground water in Idaho is of good quality for common uses; however, water quality may pose problems in local areas. The problems result from both natural and human causes. The potential for pollution of the aquifers is expected to be greatest in areas of greatest development. In Idaho, population centers and industries tend to be in areas of privately owned irrigated and arable · land. Therefore, these areas are of primary concern for monitoring ground-water quality. Other areas requiring monitoring include those with second-home development, mining and its related processes, and radioactive-waste disposal.

Idaho↗
USGS1976

Geothermal investigations in Idaho, Part IV, Isotopic and geochemical analyses of water from the Bruneau-Grand View and Weiser areas, Southwest Idaho

Variations of deuterium and oxygen-18 concentrations in thermal ground waters and local nonthermal springs have been used to aid in describing the source of recharge in the Bruneau-Grand View and Weiser areas, southwest Idaho. Isotope and geochemical data for the Bruneau-Grand View area suggest that recharge to the area may not be entirely from sources within the local surface-drainage area, but possibly from the areas of higher altitude of the Bruneau River drainage to the southeast; or that the hot water that wells and springs are discharging is water that was recharged at a time when the regional climate was much colder than the present climate. Recharge to the Weiser area is probably from areas of higher altitude to the north and northeast of the local drainage area However, local precipitation does influence both the chemical and isotopic compositions of the waters in each area.

Open-File Report↗
USGS1974

Geothermal investigations in Idaho, Part 2, An evaluation of thermal water in the Bruneau-Grand View area, southwest Idaho, with a section on a reconnaissance audio-magnetotelluric survey

The Bruneau-Grand View area occupies about 1,100 square miles in southwest Idaho and is on the southern flank of the large depression (possibly a graben) in which lies the western Snake River Plain. The igneous and sedimentary rocks in the area range in age from Late Cretaceous to Holocene. They are transected by a prominent system of northwest-trending faults. For discussion purposes, the aquifers in the area have been separated into two broad units: (1) the volcanic-rock aquifers, and (2) the overlying sedimentary-rock aquifers. The Idavada Volcanics or underlying rock units probably constitute the reservoir that contains thermal water. An audio-magnetotelluric survey indicates that a large conductive zone having apparent resistivities approaching 2 ohm-metres underlies a part of the area at a relatively shallow depth. Chemical analysis of 94 water samples collected in 1973 show that the thermal waters in the area are of a sodium bicarbonate type. Although dissolved-solids concentrations of water ranged from 181 to 1,100 milligrams per litre (mg/l) in the volcanic-rock aquifers, they were generally less than 500 mg/l. Measured chloride concentrations of water in the volcanic-rock aquifers were less than 20 mg/l. Temperatures of water from wells and springs ranged from 9.5 to 83.0 degrees C. Temperatures of water from the volcanic-rock aquifers ranged from 40.0 to 83.0 degrees C, whereas temperatures of water from the sedimentary-rock aquifers seldom exceeded 35 degrees C. Aquifer temperatures at depth, as estimated by silica and sodium-potassium-calcium geochemical thermometers, probably do not exceed 150 degrees C. However, a mixed-water geochemical thermometer indicates that temperatures at depth may exceed 180 degrees C. The gas in water from the volcanic-rock aquifers is composed chiefly of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. Methane gas (probably derived from organic material) was also found in some water from the sedimentary-rock aquifers. The thermal waters in the area are believed to be heated by deep circulation in a zone of high geothermal gradient resulting from thinning of the earth?s crust.

Idaho↗