Geology topics

Joel M. Galloway

Publications and source records attributed to Joel M. Galloway.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

USGS2024

Dissolved oxygen monitoring on the Souris River, 2019–23

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in partnership with the International Joint Commission installed and operated continuous water-quality monitors at three sites on the Souris River from May 2019 to October 2023. Continuously recorded data included dissolved oxygen (DO), water temperature, and specific conductance at the Souris River near Sherwood, North Dakota (USGS station 05114000), Souris River above Minot, N. Dak. (USGS station 05117500), and Souris River near Westhope, N. Dak (USGS station 05124000). The three sites on the Souris River were chosen for additional DO monitoring because they provided the best opportunity to capture potential effects on DO in areas downstream from major flow control structures and because identifying the connection of streamflow to DO at the international border is a focus of the International Souris River Board (ISRB). The continuous water-quality monitoring at three sites on the Souris River from May 16, 2019, to October 1, 2023, indicated different patterns in DO among the three sites, and the different patterns indicate different factors affect DO concentrations among the sites. DO concentrations near Sherwood indicated the strong effect of algal dynamics at lower streamflow conditions with large diurnal fluctuations in DO concentration and indicated that streamflow does seem to affect DO concentrations when the streamflow is greater than about 100 cubic feet per second. DO concentrations were also frequently less than the water-quality objective (WQO) of 5 milligrams per liter in the summer and winter months, particularly during relatively low streamflow conditions in 2020 and 2021. DO concentrations above Minot had a different pattern with considerably fewer diurnal fluctuations than near Sherwood, high DO concentrations most winters except for the winter of 2021–22, and fewer instances when the DO was less than the WQO compared to Sherwood. The pattern of DO concentrations near Westhope seemed to be mainly influenced by the water chemistry coming out of J. Clark Salyer Pool 357 rather than streamflow and channel conditions at the site. The Westhope site also had the most days with daily minimum DO concentrations less than the WQO among the three sites, mainly in the winter when concentrations were consistently at or near 0 milligrams per liter for most of the winter months.

North Dakota↗

USGS2024

Water-quality characteristics of the Red River of the North and tributaries in the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area, North Dakota, 2019–22

The Flood Risk Management Project was initiated in 2008 in the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area to reduce flood risk, flood damages, and flood protection costs in the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area. In cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Geological Survey initiated a water-quality monitoring study to describe the water-quality characteristics of the Red River of the North and its tributaries in the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area during the preconstruction period of the Flood Risk Management Project from October 1, 2019, to October 1, 2022. The monitoring study included the collection of discrete and continuous water-quality data and streamflow monitoring at selected sites that integrated and enhanced existing monitoring programs within the study area. Discrete samples collected at 10 sites in the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area were analyzed for major ions, trace elements, nutrients, suspended sediment, pesticides, and fecal indicator bacteria. In general, major ion concentrations were higher at sites on the tributaries (Wild Rice, Sheyenne, and Maple Rivers) compared to sites on the Red River of the North. In general, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and sulfate represented most of the dissolved ions measured in samples collected at the 10 sites. Calcium, chloride, fluoride, potassium, silica, and sodium were also measured in samples, but they represented a smaller portion of the total dissolved ions. Sulfate was the most dominant dissolved ion that had the highest concentrations among the major ions measured in samples. A total of 18 trace elements were analyzed in discrete samples. Several of the trace elements had concentrations below the laboratory reporting level in all of the samples, including antimony, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, silver, and thallium. Sites on the Wild Rice River generally had the highest concentrations of arsenic, barium, boron, manganese, and nickel compared to the other sites. Nutrients analyzed in discrete samples included filtered and unfiltered concentrations of ammonia, nitrate plus nitrite, phosphorus, and organic carbon. The median filtered ammonia concentration at most sites was less than the laboratory reporting level of 0.03 milligram per liter as nitrogen except for the Sheyenne River at Harwood, North Dakota (U.S. Geological Survey [USGS] station 05060400), and Red River of the North near Georgetown, Minnesota (USGS station 05062130). The lowest median unfiltered nitrate plus nitrite concentration was measured at sites on the Red River of the North upstream from the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area and the highest median was at sites on the Red River of the North downstream from the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area compared to all other sites. The increase in nitrate plus nitrite concentrations could reflect the effect of the wastewater-treatment plant discharge that enters the Red River of the North upstream from the site located downstream from the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area and from urban runoff. Phosphorus (unfiltered) concentrations were generally higher at sites on the Maple and Sheyenne Rivers compared to the other sites and were higher at sites on the Red River of the North downstream from the Fargo-Moorhead metropolitan area compared to sites upstream on the Red River of the North. Suspended-sediment concentrations were generally highest at sites in the Sheyenne River and lowest in the upstream Red River of the North sites. Suspended-sediment concentration was highly variable in samples collected at the 10 sites, mostly influenced by the occurrence of snowmelt and rainfall-runoff events. The Sheyenne River near Kindred, N. Dak. (USGS station 05059000) had the largest range in sediment concentrations in samples collected at the 10 sites. For all sites other than the Sheyenne River near Kindred, N. Dak., 95 percent or more of the suspended sediment had particle diameter sizes less than 0.0625 millimeter in 50 percent of the samples (median). Of the 102 pesticides and pesticide degradates analyzed, 45 constituents had no detectable concentrations in any of the 17 samples collected at five sites. The remaining 57 pesticides had at least one detection in the samples collected at the five sites. The sites on the Wild Rice River (near Abercrombie, N. Dak., USGS station 05053000, and near St. Benedict, N. Dak., USGS station 05053500) and Sheyenne River near Kindred, N. Dak., had fewer pesticide detections compared to the Maple River below Mapleton, N.Dak. (USGS station 05060100) and the Red River of the North at Fargo, N. Dak (USGS station 05054000) and near Georgetown, Minn. Patterns in annual loads generally followed the same pattern as streamflow at the 10 sites for water years 2020–22. A water year is the 12-month period from October 1 to September 30 and is designated by the calendar year in which it ends. The greatest loads for all constituents were delivered at the two downstream sites on the Red River of the North; sites that also had the highest annual streamflows among the sites and the greatest loads were delivered in water year 2020 when the highest streamflows occurred at the sites. Likewise, the least loads for most constituents were at the Maple River and were least in 2021 compared to the other years because of low-streamflow conditions. Water-quality measurements continuously recorded at the Red River of the North at Hickson, N. Dak. (USGS station 05051522); Red River of the North at Fargo, N. Dak.; and Red River of the North near Georgetown, Minn. included water temperature, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, pH, and turbidity. Specific conductance values were similar for the Red River of the North near Hickson, N. Dak., and Red River of the North at Fargo, N. Dak., when compared to the Red River of the North near Georgetown, Minn. that had higher values than the other two sites. Dissolved oxygen concentrations and pH were similar among the three sites on the Red River. The patterns in turbidity were mostly related to streamflow conditions and were similar among the three sites on the Red River of the North.

Minnesota, North Dakota↗

USGS2022

Potential effects of energy development on environmental resources of the Williston Basin in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota—Water resources

The Williston Basin has been a leading oil and gas producing area for more than 50 years. While oil production initially peaked within the Williston Basin in the mid-1980s, production rapidly increased in the mid-2000s, largely because of improved horizontal (directional) drilling and hydraulic fracturing methods. In 2012, energy development associated with the Bakken Formation was identified as a priority requiring collaboration toward improved timeliness of issuing permits for new wells combined with reasonable measures to maintain environmental quality. Shortly thereafter, the Bakken Federal Executive Group was created to address common challenges associated with energy development. The Bakken Federal Executive Group partner agencies identified a gap in current understanding of the cumulative environmental challenges attributed to energy development throughout the area, resulting in an effort to aggregate scientific data and identify additional research and information needs related to natural resources within areas of energy development in the Williston Basin. As part of this effort, water resources in the area (including groundwater; streams and rivers; and lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands) were characterized and described in terms of physical occurrence, flow characteristics, recharge, water quality, and water use. Similarly, waters produced during energy-development activities also were characterized even though these waters are not considered usable resources within the area. Groundwater resources were characterized by the major hydrogeologic units, or aquifers, identifying the units that supply most groundwater used for domestic, stock, agricultural, and industrial purposes. The groundwater characterization included other deeper hydrogeologic units in the Williston Basin that may be a useable source of water with treatment, have utility as a reservoir for reinjection of produced waters, or be a source of minerals and energy resources. A generalized groundwater budget and flow system identifying the sources of recharge (stream infiltration, precipitation, and movement [leakage] from other aquifers) and the general groundwater flow direction is included for each of the major hydrogeologic units. Rivers and streams within the Williston Basin with 10 or more years of continuous streamflow data were identified. For a subset of these sites, streamflow characteristics, including the monthly and annual mean flow, were generated to identify seasonal and interannual changes in streamflow and thus provide information on the drivers and reliability of streamflow at the seasonal or multiyear scale. Daily streamflow and annual extreme flows (peak and low flow) also were estimated for the subset of sites. The daily streamflow and annual extreme flow values provide information on short-term or extreme events that are relevant to infrastructure design and evaluating spills, leaks, or accidental discharges of water or petroleum products. Surface-water features (lakes, ponds, and wetlands) were classified using the Cowardin system and identified on the National Wetlands Inventory maps generated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The spatial distribution of the surface-water features was analyzed by State, county, and specifically in comparison to the Prairie Pothole Region. The proximity of the surface-water features to energy development infrastructure (specifically oil or gas well pads) was evaluated. It was determined that, although oil or gas wells are often near a surface-water feature, most surface-water features do not have wells nearby, with the exception of wells in the Prairie Pothole Region. Water-quality data were aggregated from two data sources: (1) the Water-Quality Portal, sponsored by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and National Water Quality Monitoring Council; and (2) a data compilation completed as part of the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment project. The Water-Quality Portal integrates publicly available water-quality data from databases maintained by the USGS, EPA, and U.S. Department of Agriculture, including water-quality data from Tribal, State, and local databases. Water-quality data for 15 commonly measured water-quality constituents were aggregated for groundwater, rivers and streams, and lakes and reservoirs. For each aggregated dataset (groundwater, rivers and streams, and lakes and reservoirs), analyses of the water-quality data included summary statistics, maps of spatial distribution of constituent values, boxplots of constituent values by timeframe or hydrogeologic unit, spatial comparisons of site locations and constituent values to petroleum well density, and comparisons of the constituent values measured to EPA drinking-water standards/guidelines. Produced water includes all fluids brought to the surface along with the targeted hydrocarbons as part of the oil and gas exploration and extraction processes. These fluids may include formation water (waters that co-exist with rock/oil/gas), hydraulic fracturing fluids, and other combinations of water and chemicals used during oil and gas well drilling, development, treatments, recompletions, and workovers. Produced water datasets were aggregated from two sources: the USGS National Produced Waters Geochemical database (ver. 2.1) and a series of projects focused specifically on sampling produced water in the Williston Basin from 2010 to 2014. The National Produced Waters Geochemical database was useful for a general understanding of produced-water chemistry. Produced waters are characterized by extreme salinity and contain elevated concentrations of other constituents (including arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, zinc, radium-226/radium-228, and ammonium) that could negatively affect water and aquatic resources if released. Produced waters also have a generally unique chemical (isotopic) signature that may be useful in tracking water from different geologic units; for example, the oxygen/deuterium and strontium ratio values measured in brine waters from the Bakken Formation are distinct from brines collected from other geologic units in the Williston Basin. Water-use information related to energy production in the area also was aggregated and summarized. The summary of water use is not limited to oil and gas production but includes water used to produce all types of energy resources in the Williston Basin, including coal/lignite, thermoelectric power, oil and gas, hydropower, biomass and biofuels, wind, geothermal, and solar. Each State has its own methods for regulating and reporting water usage within its jurisdiction. These methods can introduce problems when examining water use from sources, such as the Missouri River or Fox Hills aquifer, that are shared across political boundaries. Without the one-to-one match for usage types and amounts used from a water source, it is difficult to develop a comprehensive water budget for the water source being evaluated. A large amount of freshwater is required to prepare a well for oil and gas well production; in some cases, 3 to 7 million gallons of water are needed per well. The EPA estimates that hydraulic fracturing in the Williston Basin uses between 70 to 140 billion gallons per year. Water also is used for myriad other purposes related to ancillary oil and gas extraction. In addition to water used for immediate energy development, the expanded human workforce migrating into the area and other support staff who have moved into the area during the development also use water. Research and information needs were identified that could be relevant in the evaluation of the effects of energy development on water resources. Information needs related to the evaluation of groundwater resources include the following: improved potentiometric-surface maps for glacial units; availability of a uniform stream network digital geographic coverage that spans the international boundary with Canada; enhanced surface-water use information with regards to the gain and loss of streamflow to shallow groundwater, which would increase understanding groundwater and surface-water interactions; and expanded geophysical assessments. Gaps in the availability of streamflow data include the lack of information on ice-jam flooding despite potential for effects to infrastructure (pipelines, roads, and facilities) and an understanding of the cumulative effects of largely undocumented stock and diversion dams. Although this study resulted in the aggregation of a large quantity of water-quality data, the availability of consistently collected, systematically processed and reported data over large parts of the Williston Basin is sparse. Few samples have been analyzed for constituents that may indicate the effect of energy development on water resources. Constituents that could be considered include boron, chloride, bromide, iodine, fluoride, manganese, lithium, radium, strontium isotopes, volatile organic compounds, and isotopes of inorganic ions (such as hydrogen and carbon). Collaboration between Tribal, Federal, State, and local entities to identify a common study design, common monitoring constituents, and consistent sampling locations would generate datasets with broad utility and would likely result in overall cost savings for monitoring over time. Similarly, there is a need for standardized sample collection, processing, laboratory analytical methods, and the collection of ancillary data for produced waters sampling. Additional characterization of the range of chemical, microbial, and isotopic compositions and quantities of “end-member” produced waters, and the collection of time-series datasets to document the changes in produced waters during and after well development also were needs identified during this study. Water-use estimates would be improved through the implementation of comprehensive studies of water use from groundwater and surface-water sources using consistent methodologies across the Williston Basin. The submission of chemical and water data related to hydraulic fracturing collected by the oil and gas industry would add to the quantity of available data. Consistent implementation of regulations and monitoring controls across political boundaries (State, county, and international) would further improve the consistency of data available for the estimates of water use.

Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota↗

USGS2022

Evaluation of salinity and nutrient conditions in the Heart River Basin, North Dakota, 1970–2020

The Heart River Basin is predominantly an agricultural basin in western North Dakota and is approximately 3,350 square miles. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service and the Grant County Soil Conservation District, completed a study to assess spatial and temporal patterns of water quality in the Heart River Basin. The purpose of this report is to describe the methods and results of a study to evaluate salinity and nutrients in the Heart River Basin in western North Dakota. Water-quality and streamflow data used in the study were compiled from 1970 to 2020 using the National Water Quality Monitoring Council Water Quality Portal and National Water Information System. Changes in streamflow characteristics were investigated at three sites from 1970 to 2020, and changes in water quality were investigated at four sites from 1974 to 2019. Streamflow analysis indicated decreasing streamflow from 1970 until the late 1990s followed by increasing streamflow through 2020, with the largest increase in the 7-day minimum streamflow or base flow. For the historical water-quality trend period (1974–2019), total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, chloride, and sodium adsorption ratio concentrations have increased since the mid-1970s through 2019. Potassium concentrations during the historical period remained mostly constant with some small fluctuations. Calcium and magnesium concentrations increased since the mid-1970s at all sites, except for a decrease at one site between 1974 and 1999. During the recent trend period (1999–2019), increasing concentrations in total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and sodium adsorption ratios were observed across the Heart River Basin. The magnitude of the increases was smaller at tributary sites compared to main-stem sites. During the recent period, potassium was mostly constant, although small (−0.9 milligram per liter or less) decreases on tributaries and minor (1.3 milligrams per liter) increases on the main-stem sites were detected. Unlike dissolved ion concentrations, significant increases in nutrient concentrations were not detected from 1999 to 2019, but nitrate plus nitrite concentrations most likely decreased upstream from Lake Tschida. Inverse modeling for period 1 (1974–99) in model zone 1 (Heart River reach from site 5 to site 6) had eight reasonable models that indicated the clay mineral-water interactions and dissolution of evaporites control the geochemistry. Results of the inverse modeling for period 2 (1999–2019) in model zone 1 also had eight reasonable models that indicated that the dissolution of evaporites was the major geochemical control. Results of the geochemical modeling for period 1 (1974–99) in model zone 2 (Heart River and Sweetbriar Creek reach from sites 20 and 21 to site 22) produced seven reasonable models, and the geochemical control of the system was the dissolution of sulfate evaporite minerals. Geochemical modeling results for period 2 (1999–2019) in model zone 2 produced 11 reasonable models and was also controlled by the dissolution of sulfate evaporite minerals. Differences between the two model zones indicated that geology controls some of the water-quality changes in the Heart River Basin. Loads were estimated for total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, and chloride and total phosphorus. Annual loads estimated for the Heart River from 2013 through 2020 at the Heart River site upstream from Lake Tschida (site 5) and near Mandan (site 22) were generally greatest in 2014 and least in 2016 for total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, and chloride. Most of the annual loads of total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, and chloride are delivered in March through July in the Heart River at these sites and are likely from snowmelt and spring and summer rains. The mean annual yields of total dissolved solids and sodium from 2013 to 2020 generally were largest in Big Muddy Creek (site 18), whereas yields of sulfate and chloride were largest at Sweetbriar Creek (site 21) compared to the other selected sites in the Heart River Basin. Larger yields of total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, and chloride at sites located on Big Muddy Creek and Sweet Briar Creek in the lower Heart River Basin were likely a result of differences in geology and soils upstream from the selected sites. A mass balance of total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, and chloride was estimated for the lower Heart River Basin, specifically the reach below Lake Tschida to Mandan (site 7 to site 22). Intervening flow was the largest contributor to the dissolved ion loads in the lower Heart River Basin and is an important part of understanding the transport of dissolved ions in the basin. The intervening load can include groundwater discharge, irrigation return flow, local runoff, and input from smaller ephemeral tributaries. Tributaries in the lower Heart River Basin contributed portions of the total dissolved solids, sulfate, sodium, and chloride loads at the Heart River near Mandan (site 22) that generally were proportional to the streamflow contributions. Annual loads for total phosphorus between 2013 and 2020 at the Heart River site upstream from Lake Tschida (site 5) and near Mandan (site 22) generally were largest in 2019 and smallest in 2016. Most of the total phosphorus loads for main-stem sites 5 and 22 were transported in March, April, and June, likely from snowmelt and early summer rains. The mean annual yields of total phosphorus for 2013–20 were largest on the main-stem site upstream from Lake Tschida (site 5) and Sweetbriar Creek (site 21), whereas the smallest yields were in Big Muddy Creek (site 18). Much of the phosphorus that enters Lake Tschida from the upper basin does not get transported downstream to the lower basin, and much of the phosphorus in the lower basin was attributed to intervening flow.

North Dakota↗

USGS2022

Measurements of streamflow gain and loss on the Souris River between Lake Darling and Verendrye, North Dakota, August 31 and September 1, 2021

Dry conditions during 2020 and 2021 affected the water supply within the Souris River Basin and highlighted the need for better understanding of the streamflow dynamics for managing the resource during low-flow conditions. In June 2021, a loss of streamflow was observed on the Souris River between U.S. Geological Survey streamgages on the Souris River near Foxholm, North Dakota (site 1), and near Verendrye, N. Dak. (site 22). The largest loss was upstream from the Souris River above Minot, N. Dak. (site 7). On June 6, 2021, the daily mean streamflow decreased from 33.8 cubic feet per second at site 1 to 16.3 cubic feet per second at site 7, a loss of 17.5 cubic feet per second. To better understand where streamflow losses occurred in the reach from site 1 to site 22, multiple sites were selected for streamflow measurements between the three streamgages (sites 1, 7, and 22). Streamflow measurements made at 22 selected sites on the Souris River on August 31 and September 1, 2021, did not indicate the loss in streamflow that was observed at the three streamgages (sites 1, 7, and 22) in June 2021. Measurements made at the three streamgages (sites 1, 7, and 22) on August 31 had streamflows of 44.2, 45.9, and 46.8 cubic feet per second, respectively. Streamflow measured at all 22 sites on August 31 and September 1 on the Souris River ranged from 38.4 (site 9) to 49.8 cubic feet per second (site 12). In general, the largest change in streamflow was measured among sites on the Souris River in or near the city of Minot, N. Dak.

North Dakota↗

USGS2021

Evaluation of hydrologic simulation models for fields with subsurface drainage to mitigated wetlands in Barnes, Dickey, and Sargent Counties, North Dakota

Proper identification of wetlands, along with a better understanding of the hydrology of mitigated wetlands, is needed to assist with conservation efforts aimed at maintaining the productivity and ecological function (wetland mitigation) of agricultural lands. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, completed a study to evaluate two models for simulating hydrologic conditions in fields with subsurface drainage to mitigated wetlands at several sites in North Dakota. These two models were evaluated as possible tools for water resource managers to use for designing wetland mitigation projects in the area in the future. The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere-Water (SPAW) model simulates the daily hydrologic water budgets of agricultural landscapes by two linked routines, one for farm fields (field hydrology) and one for impoundments such as wetlands and ponds (pond model). The DRAINMOD model was used in conjunction with the SPAW model because although the SPAW model can be used to simulate the hydrology of small drainage basins containing wetlands, the SPAW model does not contain routines to simulate drainage, either subsurface drainage or surface (drainage ditches), that can directly affect the wetland hydrology. The wetlands in the study areas in this report are all downstream from and adjacent to drained agricultural fields. SPAW and DRAINMOD models were developed and calibrated at three study areas (study areas B, D, and S) to evaluate how the models simulated field-scale hydrologic characteristics and the water balance in wetlands from January 1, 2003, through December 31, 2018. The SPAW model developed for study area B included five modeled fields in the field hydrology portion of SPAW that contributed inflow to one wetland simulated in the pond model portion of SPAW. Simulated wetland water depths were most similar to water depths measured at site BWET1, with an absolute mean error of 0.10 foot and a root mean square error of 0.14 foot. Site BWET2 had slightly larger errors, with an absolute mean error of 0.22 foot and a root mean square error of 0.28 foot. Simulated water depths were similar to the pattern of measured water depths at BWET1 and BWET2 from about mid-April 2018 through about mid-September 2018, but overpredicted water depths in the fall from about mid-September 2018 through about mid-October 2018. The SPAW model developed for study area D included six modeled fields in the field hydrology portion of SPAW that contributed inflow to five wetlands connected in series in the pond model portion of SPAW. Simulated water depths compared relatively well to water depths in the five wetlands, with the absolute mean error ranging from 0.17 foot (DWET1) to 0.39 foot (DWET2), and the root mean square error ranging from 0.28 foot (DWET1) to 0.56 foot (DWET5). The SPAW model developed for study area S included one modeled field in the field hydrology portion of SPAW that contributed inflow to one wetland in the pond model portion of SPAW. Among the SPAW models developed for the three study areas, the model for study area S had the best comparison between simulated and measured water depths, with an absolute mean error of 0.06 foot and a root mean square error of 0.10 foot. DRAINMOD models were developed and calibrated at the three study areas and provided inflow from subsurface drainage discharge to the SPAW models for simulating water levels in wetlands in the study areas. The calibrated DRAINMOD model for study area B showed the variability of hydrologic processes in the modeled field throughout the wide range of hydrologic conditions from January 1, 2003, through December 31, 2018. In general, the discharge through the modeled subsurface drainage system was in the spring and early summer (April through June) most years, with little to no discharge later in the year. Although the subsurface drainage system in study area D was the most complex among the three study areas and was simplified into a uniform system within DRAINMOD, simulated water table depths at study area D correlated better to measured water table depths compared to results from the model applications at the other two study areas. Simulated water table depths had an absolute mean error of 0.30 foot and root mean square error of 0.37 foot at site DGW1 and an absolute mean error of 0.29 foot and a root mean square error of 0.34 foot at site DGW2. Although the subsurface drainage system in study area S was the simplest and the modeled field was the smallest among the three study areas, simulated water table depths at study area S did not correlate as well to measured water table depths compared to results from the model applications at the other two study areas. The SPAW and DRAINMOD model applications at the three study areas in southeast North Dakota adequately simulated the hydrologic processes for fields with subsurface drainage that are connected to adjacent wetlands. However, more measured data would be needed to fully evaluate the models throughout the range of possible climatic conditions.

North Dakota↗

USGS2021

Groundwater assessment for petroleum hydrocarbon compounds associated with Fuels Area C, Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota, 2014–18

In 2013, the U.S. Geological Survey began a study in cooperation with the Defense Logistics Agency and the U.S. Air Force to estimate groundwater-flow direction, install groundwater monitoring wells, and collect soil and groundwater samples for petroleum hydrocarbon compounds to identify the presence of hydrocarbon contamination at Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota, specifically around Fuels Area C. Several fuel spills of diesel fuel, jet fuel, and other petroleum products were documented on or near Fuels Area C and several studies have been done to determine the extent of petroleum hydrocarbon contamination in the subsurface. Two-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography surveys were completed at Fuels Area C in 2014 to characterize subsurface materials and determine the depth to bedrock along survey lines. The depth to the top of the Pierre Shale from land surface along the four electrical resistivity tomography survey lines in Fuels area C ranged from about 5.4 to 8.7 meters. Resistivity lines and lithologic logs in wells in the area indicated mostly clay material with minor occurrences of sand and gravel. Discrete groundwater levels were collected between November 2014 and June 2018 at 14 monitoring wells for use in generating a potentiometric surface in the study area around Fuels Area C. The potentiometric contours indicated that groundwater flow was from the west to east or southwest to southeast around Fuels Area C. Soil and groundwater samples were collected at selected locations from 2014 to 2018 to better understand the presence and movement of petroleum hydrocarbons in the study area around Fuels Area C. Soil samples were collected at eight wells during installation in 2014 and three wells during installation in 2016. Groundwater samples were collected from 14 wells and a recovery sump around Fuels Area C from 2014 to 2018. Several petroleum hydrocarbon compounds were detected, but below action levels, in soil samples collected in 2014 and 2016. Benzene and toluene were not detected in any of the soil samples from the 11 monitoring well sites. Ethylbenzene and total xylenes were detected at sites 1 and 7. Naphthalene was detected in samples from five sites (sites 1, 5, 7, 8, and 9), but concentrations were less than the Tier 1 action level of 25 milligrams per kilogram. Gasoline-range organic compounds were detected in all soil samples collected during the installation of 11 groundwater monitoring wells within or near Fuels Area C in 2014 and 2016. Diesel-range organic compounds were detected in 9 out of the 11 soil samples collected at the 11 monitoring wells. Gasoline-range organic compound concentrations exceeded the Tier 2 assessment level for total petroleum hydrocarbons in soil samples from site 1 (5,200 milligrams per kilogram), site 5 (580 milligrams per kilogram), and site 9 (1,800 milligrams per kilogram); the remaining sites had concentrations below the Tier 2 assessment level for total petroleum hydrocarbons. The highest concentrations of diesel-range organic compounds in soil samples were from site 1 (3,600 milligrams per kilogram), site 5 (440 milligrams per kilogram), and site 14 (330 milligrams per kilogram), and only the sample from site 1 exceeded the Tier 2 assessment level for total petroleum hydrocarbons. Petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations were measured in samples collected from 14 groundwater monitoring wells and 1 recovery sump between 2014 and 2018 in the study area around Fuels Area C. Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) compounds were detected in at least one sample collected from 10 of the 15 sites sampled in the study area from 2014 to 2018. Samples from monitoring well sites 2, 3, 6, 8, and 9 did not have any quantifiable concentrations of BTEX compounds. Multiple BTEX compounds were detected consistently in samples collected from sites 10 and 11. Few BTEX compounds were detected at sites outside of and downgradient from Fuels Area C (sites 12–14). Naphthalene was detected in 8 of the 15 sites sampled in the study area in 2014–18. Measurable concentrations of naphthalene generally were less than 5 micrograms per liter in wells sampled in the study area in 2014–18 except for samples collected at sites 5, 7, and 11. The variability of the presence of BTEX compounds and naphthalene in wells sampled in the study area during 2014–18 likely is caused by the variability in the subsurface material, local groundwater flow, operational fueling activities, and historical spills and releases in the area. The spatial and temporal variability in the BTEX compounds and naphthalene concentrations from samples collected from 2014 to 2018 do not indicate a consistent pattern of subsurface flow or contaminate movement that would be expected if a contaminant plume migrated with the flow and movement of groundwater. Gasoline-range organic and diesel-range organic compounds were detected in most of the groundwater samples collected in the study area around Fuels Area C in 2014–18; however, concentrations were often less than the laboratory reporting level. Median gasoline-range organic compound concentrations were greater than the laboratory reporting level at sites 1, 5, 9, 10, and 11. The highest concentrations of gasoline-range organic and diesel-range organic compounds generally were observed in samples collected from sites 10 and 11. Gasoline-range organic compound concentrations ranged from 1,500 to 9,700 micrograms per liter at site 10 and from less than 100 to 13,000 micrograms per liter at site 11. Diesel-range organic compound concentrations ranged from 9,600 to 55,000 micrograms per liter at site 10 and from 560 to 7,300 micrograms per liter at site 11.

South Dakota↗

USGS2021

Characterization of historical and stochastically generated climate and streamflow conditions in the Souris River Basin, United States and Canada

The Souris River Basin is a 61,000-square-kilometer basin in the Provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Canada and the State of North Dakota in the United States. Greater than average snowpack during the winter of 2010–11, along with record-setting rains in May and June 2011, resulted in historically unprecedented flooding in the Souris River Basin. The severity of the 2011 flood led the United States and Canada to request a review of the operating plan for any improvements of reservoir operations and flood control measures in the basin, and the Souris River Basin Task Force was formed. The International Souris River Study Board was then formed in 2017 to carry out the recommendations of the Souris River Basin Task Force laid out in a plan of study. To support the International Souris River Study Board, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the North Dakota State Water Commission and the International Joint Commission, used the previously developed unregulated and regulated streamflow models and data for stochastic streamflow in the Souris River Basin to characterize climate and streamflow and support selection of streamflow traces based on their characterization. Components of the original stochastic hydrology models and their outputs were used in this phase of the study to (1) characterize historical and stochastic climate and streamflow for the Souris River Basin, (2) disaggregate monthly stochastic streamflow spatially and temporally to meet the needs of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Center, Reservoir System Simulation model for the Souris River Basin, and (3) discuss selection of disaggregated streamflow traces (simulations) using the characteristics of climate and streamflow. A trace is a time series of a stochastic variable such as streamflow, potential evapotranspiration, or precipitation. To characterize climate conditions, precipitation, potential evapotranspiration (PET), and moisture deficit for the Souris River Basin and individual points at Rafferty, Grant Devine, and Lake Darling Reservoirs were determined annually and seasonally. The annual basin (November 1–October 31) precipitation for the 50-percent nonexceedance probability is 452 millimeters (mm). Spring (March–May) is the wettest season, followed by summer (June–August), fall (September–November), and winter (December–February). Annual moisture deficit was largest at Lake Darling Reservoir, followed by Rafferty Reservoir, and then Grant Devine Reservoir. Annual maximum monthly mean streamflow was determined for the Souris River below Rafferty Reservoir, Saskatchewan (Canadian streamgage 05NB036); Long Creek near Noonan (above Boundary Reservoir), North Dakota (USGS streamgage 05113600); Moose Mountain Creek near Oxbow, Saskatchewan (Canadian streamgage 05ND004); the Souris River near Sherwood, N. Dak. (USGS streamgage 05114000); the Des Lacs River at Foxholm, N. Dak. (USGS streamgage 05116500); and the Souris River above Minot, N. Dak. (USGS streamgage 05117500). When the seasonal maximum monthly mean streamflows are evaluated in contrast to annual maximum monthly mean streamflows separated by their seasonal occurrence, summer months of annual maximum monthly mean streamflows have a higher 50-percent exceedance probability of streamflow compared to annual maximum monthly mean streamflows that occur in spring, seasonal maximum monthly mean streamflows that occur in spring, and seasonal maximum monthly mean streamflows that occur in summer. When annual maximum monthly mean streamflows in summer are compared to annual maximum monthly mean streamflows in spring, they are consistently higher in streamflow but occur in less than 4.2 percent of years. Evaluation of whether the annual maximum monthly mean streamflows that occur in summer can be described as a separate population from annual maximum monthly mean streamflows that occur in spring was outside the scope of this study, and the summer and spring annual maximum monthly mean streamflows were not tested for statistical differences in mean or variance. Further investigation of seasonal weather patterns that induce flooding could lead to a better understanding of the seasonal differences in flooding. Long-term hydrologic drought was characterized by evaluating multiyear mean streamflow. Shorter averaging periods have greater streamflow variability than longer periods and hence have a wider range of values. As the averaging period is extended to a longer period, the variability of mean streamflow decreases, and the more extreme streamflow volumes seen in shorter averaging periods cannot be sustained. Stochastic streamflow time series were disaggregated spatially and temporally for use in a HEC–ResSim model. The combination of monthly and daily stochastic streamflow data was used to select traces with qualities that could be used to test alternatives focused on water supply, summer flooding, and apportionment.

Manitoba, North Dakota, Saskatchewan↗

USGS2020

Geochemistry and age of groundwater in the Williston Basin, USA: Assessing potential effects of shale-oil production on groundwater quality

Thirty water wells were sampled in 2018 to understand the geochemistry and age of groundwater in the Williston Basin and assess potential effects of shale-oil production from the Three Forks-Bakken petroleum system (TBPS) on groundwater quality. Two geochemical groups are identified using hierarchical cluster analysis. Group 1 represents the younger (median 4 He = 21.49 × 10 −8 cm 3 STP/g), less chemically evolved water. Group 2 represents the older (median 4 He = 1389 × 10 −8 cm 3 STP/g), more chemically evolved water. At least two samples from each group contain elevated Cl concentrations (>70 mg/L). Br/Cl, B/Cl, and Li/Cl ratios indicate multiple sources account for the elevated Cl concentrations: septic-system leachate/road deicing salt, lignite beds in the aquifers, Pierre Shale beneath the aquifers, and water associated with the TBPS (one sample). 3 H and 14 C data indicate that 10.8, 21.6, and 67.6% of the samples are modern (post-1952), mixed age, and premodern (pre-1953), respectively. Lumped-parameter modeling of 3 H, SF 6 , 3 He, and 14 C concentrations indicates mean ages of the modern and premodern fractions range from ~1 to 30 years and 1300 to >30,000 years, respectively. Group 2 contains the highest CH 4 concentrations (0.0018–32 mg/L). δ 13 C–CH 4 and C 1 /C 2 +C 3 data in groundwater (−91.7 to −70.0‰ and 1280 to 13,600) indicate groundwater CH 4 is biogenic in origin and not from thermogenic shale gas. Four volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were detected in two samples. One mixed-age sample contains chloroform (0.25 μg/L) and dichloromethane (0.05 μg/L), which are probably associated with septic leachate. One premodern sample contains butane (0.082 μg/L) and n-pentane (0.032 μg/L), which are probably associated with thermogenic gas from a nearby oil well. The data indicate hydrocarbon production activities do not currently (2018) widely affect Cl, CH 4 , and VOC concentrations in groundwater. The predominance of premodern recharge in the aquifers indicates the groundwater moves relatively slowly, which could inhibit widespread chemical movement in groundwater overlying the TBPS. Comparison of groundwater-age data from five major unconventional hydrocarbon-production areas indicates aquifer zones used for water supply in the TBPS area have a lower risk of widespread chemical movement in groundwater than similar aquifer zones in the Fayetteville (Arkansas) and Marcellus (Pennsylvania) Shale production areas, but have a higher risk than similar aquifer zones in the Eagle Ford (Texas) and Haynesville (Texas, Louisiana) Shale production areas.

Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota↗

USGS2019

Stochastic model for simulating Souris River Basin regulated streamflow upstream from Minot, North Dakota

The Souris River Basin is a 24,000 square-mile basin in the Provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Canada, and the State of North Dakota in the United States. Above-average snowpack during the winter of 2010–11, along with record-setting rains in May and June of 2011, led to record flooding that caused extensive damage to Minot, North Dakota, and numerous smaller communities in Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and North Dakota. As a result, the International Souris River Board created the Souris River Flood Task Force to evaluate potential reservoir operation changes and flood control measures to manage future floods and droughts. Part of this evaluation involved identifying a need for a stochastic streamflow model to estimate the likelihood of future flooding or drought. A stochastic natural (unregulated) streamflow simulation model described in a previous report was built upon in this report to include the effects of regulation of four reservoirs (Rafferty, Alameda, and Boundary Reservoirs and Lake Darling) and their operation guidelines. First, a regulated reservoir storage/streamflow routing model was developed and calibrated from when all four reservoirs were in operation until the end of the reconstructed natural streamflow dataset provided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1992–2011). The regulated reservoir storage/streamflow routing model then was combined with the stochastic natural (unregulated) streamflow model to provide a stochastic regulated streamflow simulation model for the Souris River Basin upstream from Minot, North Dakota. The stochastic regulated streamflow simulation model was used to estimate regulated flood frequency curves, which are useful for feasibility and design of critical structures such as levees or bridges. Three potential future climatic conditions were considered in this analysis: condition A (wet equilibrium), representing wet (similar to 1970–2017) climatic conditions; condition B (transition), representing transition from wet to dry (similar to 1912–69) climatic conditions; and condition C (dry equilibrium), representing dry climatic conditions. Comparison of the estimated flood frequency curves for regulated flow among the three climatic conditions indicated large differences in flood magnitudes for the more extreme (1-percent or less) annual exceedance probabilities. The estimated 0.2-percent annual exceedance probability flood magnitude for the Souris River upstream from Minot, N. Dak., was 29,300 cubic feet per second for condition A (wet equilibrium), compared to 14,800 cubic feet per second for condition C (dry equilibrium). For comparison, the recorded peak streamflow for 2011 for the Souris River upstream from Minot, N. Dak., was 26,900 cubic feet per second. Although it is not possible to predict how long the current (1970–2017) wet climatic conditions may persist, flood risk for at least the next 25 years, or until about 2040, may be represented best by climatic condition A.

North Dakota↗

USGS2018

Streamflow, sediment transport, and geomorphic change during the 2011 flood on the Missouri River near Bismarck-Mandan, ND

Geomorphic change from extreme events in large managed rivers has implications for river management. A steady-state, quasi-three-dimensional hydrodynamic model was applied to a 29-km reach of the Missouri River using 2011 flood data. Model results for an extreme flow (500-year recurrence interval [RI]) and an elevated managed flow (75-year RI) were used to assess sediment mobility through examination of the spatial distribution of boundary or bed shear stress ( τ b ) and longitudinal patterns of average τ b , velocity, and kurtosis of τ b . Kurtosis of τ b was used as an indicator of planform channel complexity and can be applied to other river systems. From differences in longitudinal patterns of sediment mobility for the two flows we can infer: (1) under extreme flow, the channel behaves as a single-thread channel controlled primarily by flow, which enhances the meander pattern; (2) under elevated managed flows, the channel behaves as multithread channel controlled by the interaction of flow with bed and channel topography, resulting in a more complex channel; and (3) for both flows, the model reach lacks a consistent pattern of deposition or erosion, which indicates migration of areas of erosion and deposition within the reach. Despite caveats and limitations, the analysis provides useful information about geomorphic change under extreme flow and potential implications for river management. Although a 500-year RI is rare, extreme hydrologic events such as this are predicted to increase in frequency.

North Dakota↗

USGS2017

Runoff and water-quality characteristics of three Discovery Farms in North Dakota, 2008–16

Agricultural producers in North Dakota are aware of concerns about degrading water quality, and many of the producers are interested in implementing conservation practices to reduce the export of nutrients from their farms. Producers often implement conservation practices without knowledge of the water quality of the runoff from their farm or if conservation practices they may implement have any effect on water quality. In response to this lack of information, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with North Dakota State University Extension Service and in coordination with an advisory group consisting of State agencies, agricultural producers, and commodity groups, implemented a monitoring study as part of a Discovery Farms program in North Dakota in 2007. Three data-collection sites were established at each of three farms near Underwood, Embden, and Dazey, North Dakota. The purpose of this report is to describe runoff and water-quality characteristics using data collected at the three Discovery Farms during 2008–16. Runoff and water-quality data were used to help describe the implications of agricultural conservation practices on runoff and water-quality patterns. Runoff characteristics of monitoring sites at the three farms were determined by measuring flow volume and precipitation. Runoff at the Underwood farm monitoring sites generally was controlled by precipitation in the area, antecedent soil moisture conditions, and, after 2012, possibly by the diversion ditch constructed by the producer. Most of the annual runoff was in March and April each year during spring snowmelt. Runoff characteristics at the Embden farm are complex because of the mix of surface runoff and flow through two separate drainage tile systems. Annual flow volumes for the drainage tiles sites (sites E2 and E3) were several orders of magnitude greater than measured at the surface water site E1. Site E1 generally only had runoff briefly in March and April during spring snowmelt and during only a few large rain events throughout 2009–16. Flow was somewhat continuous at sites E2 and E3 throughout the year during years of increased precipitation, such as in 2010 and 2011. At Dazey farm, annual flow volumes at the most downstream site D3 for 2010–15 ranged from 88 acre-feet (2012) to 12,060 acre-feet (2010). The largest monthly runoff volumes at D1 (most upstream site; combination of data from site D1a [original site] and site D1b [relocated site]) and D3 were in March and April during spring snowmelt runoff and rain events. At Underwood farm, total ammonia and total phosphorus had the highest concentrations at the most upstream site (U1) and decreased sequentially at sites U2 and U3 downstream. Total ammonia and total phosphorus concentrations at the sites for Underwood farm also generally were higher than measured at sites for the Dazey and Embden farms. At Embden farm, nitrate plus nitrite concentrations were lowest at site E1 (surface-water site) and highest at sites E2 and E3 (drainage tile sites). Nitrate plus nitrite concentrations at sites E2 and E3 also were the highest among all the sites at all three farms. Median total nitrate plus nitrite concentrations for sites E1, E2, and E3 were 0.22, 13, and 10 milligrams per liter as nitrogen, respectively. Nutrient concentrations generally were greater at site D1 (most upstream site) compared to site D3 (most downstream site) at Dazey farm. Higher concentrations at site D1, which is farther upstream and closer to potential sources of nutrients, compared to lower concentrations at site D3, which is farther downstream and receives more runoff, indicates that dilution may be the reason concentrations decrease downstream. Annual loads for chloride at all three Underwood sites were the greatest in 2011 and the least in 2012, which coincided with years of the greatest and least annual flow volume, respectively. Total ammonia had a similar pattern at the three sites. Nitrate plus nitrite loads displayed a different pattern than chloride and total ammonia, indicating possible different sources. Chloride, total ammonia, total phosphorus, and suspended sediment were transported past site U1 mostly in March and the least from July through October. Monthly nitrate plus nitrite loads had a different pattern than the other constituents, indicating other possible sources such as fertilizer application in the surrounding cropland. Annual loads for Embden farm were considerably greater at sites E2 and E3 compared to site E1. Annual yields for all constituents also were substantially greater at sites E2 and E3 compared to site E1, mainly because of a combination of higher flow volumes and small contributing drainage areas at sites E2 and E3 compared to site E1. The greatest annual loads at Dazey farm site D3 for chloride, nitrate plus nitrite, and suspended sediment were in 2010 and 2011, and zero loads were estimated for 2012 because no flow was measured at the site. Mean monthly loads generally were greatest for most constituents in March and April at sites D1 and D3 except for suspended sediment that had the greatest monthly loads in May. To mitigate runoff and water-quality effects of their operations, the producers implemented various agricultural conservation practices before and during the Discovery Farms monitoring. Even though it was difficult to quantify the effects of the agricultural conservation practices implemented at the farms, the data collected from the Discovery Farms program provided a better understanding of some of the variables that affect runoff and water quality.

North Dakota↗

USGS2017

Environmental signatures and effects of an oil and gas wastewater spill in the Williston Basin, North Dakota

Wastewaters from oil and gas development pose largely unknown risks to environmental resources. In January 2015, 11.4 M L (million liters) of wastewater (300 g/L TDS) from oil production in the Williston Basin was reported to have leaked from a pipeline, spilling into Blacktail Creek, North Dakota. Geochemical and biological samples were collected in February and June 2015 to identify geochemical signatures of spilled wastewaters as well as biological responses along a 44-km river reach. February water samples had elevated chloride (1030 mg/L) and bromide (7.8 mg/L) downstream from the spill, compared to upstream levels (11 mg/L and < 0.4 mg/L, respectively). Lithium (0.25 mg/L), boron (1.75 mg/L) and strontium (7.1 mg/L) were present downstream at 5–10 times upstream concentrations. Light hydrocarbon measurements indicated a persistent thermogenic source of methane in the stream. Semi-volatile hydrocarbons indicative of oil were not detected in filtered samples but low levels, including tetramethylbenzenes and di-methylnaphthalenes, were detected in unfiltered water samples downstream from the spill. Labile sediment-bound barium and strontium concentrations (June 2015) were higher downstream from the Spill Site. Radium activities in sediment downstream from the Spill Site were up to 15 times the upstream activities and, combined with Sr isotope ratios, suggest contributions from the pipeline fluid and support the conclusion that elevated concentrations in Blacktail Creek water are from the leaking pipeline. Results from June 2015 demonstrate the persistence of wastewater effects in Blacktail Creek several months after remediation efforts started. Aquatic health effects were observed in June 2015; fish bioassays showed only 2.5% survival at 7.1 km downstream from the spill compared to 89% at the upstream reference site. Additional potential biological impacts were indicated by estrogenic inhibition in downstream waters. Our findings demonstrate that environmental signatures from wastewater spills are persistent and create the potential for long-term environmental health effects.

North Dakota↗

USGS2016

Flood effects provide evidence of an alternate stable state from dam management on the Upper Missouri River

We examine how historic flooding in 2011 affected the geomorphic adjustments created by dam regulation along the approximately 120 km free flowing reach of the Upper Missouri River bounded upstream by the Garrison Dam (1953) and downstream by Lake Oahe Reservoir (1959) near the City of Bismarck, ND, USA. The largest flood since dam regulation occurred in 2011. Flood releases from the Garrison Dam began in May 2011 and lasted until October, peaking with a flow of more than 4200 m 3 s −1 . Channel cross-section data and aerial imagery before and after the flood were compared with historic rates of channel change to assess the relative impact of the flood on the river morphology. Results indicate that the 2011 flood maintained trends in island area with the loss of islands in the reach just below the dam and an increase in island area downstream. Channel capacity changes varied along the Garrison Segment as a result of the flood. The thalweg, which has been stable since the mid-1970s, did not migrate. And channel morphology, as defined by a newly developed shoaling metric, which quantifies the degree of channel braiding, indicates significant longitudinal variability in response to the flood. These results show that the 2011 flood exacerbates some geomorphic trends caused by the dam while reversing others. We conclude that the presence of dams has created an alternate geomorphic and related ecological stable state, which does not revert towards pre-dam conditions in response to the flood of record. This suggests that management of sediment transport dynamics as well as flow modification is necessary to restore the Garrison Segment of the Upper Missouri River towards pre-dam conditions and help create or maintain habitat for endangered species. Published 2016. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Upper Missouri River↗

USGS2016

Water-surface elevation and discharge measurement data for the Red River of the North and its tributaries near Fargo, North Dakota, water years 2014–15

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Fargo Diversion Board of Authority, collected water-surface elevations during a range of discharges needed for calibration of hydrologic and hydraulic models for specific reaches of interest in water years 2014–15. These water-surface elevation and discharge measurement data were collected for design planning of diversion structures on the Red River of the North and Wild Rice River and the aqueduct/diversion structures on the Sheyenne and Maple Rivers. The Red River of the North and Sheyenne River reaches were surveyed six times, and discharges ranged from 276 to 6,540 cubic feet per second and from 166 to 2,040 cubic feet per second, respectively. The Wild Rice River reach also was surveyed six times during 2014 and 2015, and discharges ranged from 13 to 1,550 cubic feet per second. The Maple River reach was surveyed four times, and discharges ranged from 16.4 to 633 cubic feet per second. Water-surface elevation differences from upstream to downstream in the reaches ranged from 0.33 feet in the Red River of the North reach to 9.4 feet in the Maple River reach.

North Dakota↗

USGS2015

Characteristics of sediment transport at selected sites along the Missouri River, 2011–12

Extreme flooding in the Missouri River in 2011, followed by a year of more typical streamflows in 2012, allowed the sediment-transport regime to be compared between the unprecedented conditions of 2011 and the year immediately following the flooding. As part of a cooperative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, this report follows up U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2013–5006 by comparing sediment transport between years and among sampling sites spanning the Garrison Segment in North Dakota, the Gavins Point Segment downstream from Lewis and Clark Lake, and a part of the Channelized Segment along the Nebraska-Iowa border. Suspended sediment, bed material, bedload, and streamflow data from June 2011 through November 2012 were designated as “measured” total loads, wash loads, and bed-material loads; and, alternatively, were applied to the Modified-Einstein Procedure to compute sediment loads that were designated as “estimated” total loads. Beyond the expected result that sediment loads were much lower during typical streamflows than those measured during the flooding, the measured data indicated some localized sediment-transport processes for further examination. Extreme and prolonged flooding can temporarily deplete sediment supplies locally, and evidence indicating such depletion was present at some sites. Unexpectedly high bed-material loads in the Gavins Point Segment may reflect episodic bar erosion just upstream from the sampling site. The relative contribution of bedload was typically 10 percent or less of the total load during the flooding. Following the flooding, this relative amount increased at some sites but not others, the reasons for which are possibly related to differences in stream velocity. Ultimately, the bedload decreased as it entered the Channelized Segment because of increased velocity and the turbulent mixing ability of the river as compared to the Gavins Point Segment. This turbulent mixing may also convert bed-material load into wash load, thereby rendering those sediments unavailable for creating sandbars and other bedforms. Though some of the sampling data support this premise, it was not consistently manifested by differences between the sediment load of the two segments during typical-streamflow conditions. The Modified-Einstein Procedure tended to predict greater total-sediment loads when compared to measured values. These differences may be the result of sediment deficits in the Missouri River that lead to an overprediction by the Modified-Einstein Procedure, the unsampled zone above the streambed that leads to an underprediction by the suspended sampler, or general uncertainty in the sampling approach. The differences between total-sediment load obtained through measurements and that estimated from applied theoretical procedures such as the Modified-Einstein Procedure pose a challenge for reliably characterizing total-sediment transport. Though it is not clear which of the two techniques is more accurate, the general tendency of the two to be within an order of magnitude of one another may be adequate for many sediment studies.

Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, So↗

USGS2014

Quality and age of shallow groundwater in the Bakken Formation production area, Williston Basin, Montana and North Dakota

The quality and age of shallow groundwater in the Bakken Formation production area were characterized using data from 30 randomly distributed domestic wells screened in the upper Fort Union Formation. Comparison of inorganic and organic chemical concentrations to health based drinking-water standards, correlation analysis of concentrations with oil and gas well locations, and isotopic data give no indication that energy-development activities affected groundwater quality. It is important, however, to consider these results in the context of groundwater age. Most samples were recharged before the early 1950s and had 14C ages ranging from 30,000 years. Thus, domestic wells may not be as well suited for detecting contamination associated with recent surface spills as shallower wells screened near the water table. Old groundwater could be contaminated directly by recent subsurface leaks from imperfectly cemented oil and gas wells, but horizontal groundwater velocities calculated from 14C ages imply that the contaminants would still be less than 0.5 km from their source. For the wells sampled in this study, the median distance to the nearest oil and gas well was 4.6 km. Because of the slow velocities, a long-term commitment to groundwater monitoring in the upper Fort Union Formation is needed to assess the effects of energy development on groundwater quality. In conjunction with that effort, monitoring could be done closer to energy-development activities to increase the likelihood of early detection of groundwater contamination if it did occur.

Montana, North Dakota↗

USGS2014

Geomorphic change on the Missouri River during the flood of 2011

The 2011 flood on the Missouri River was one of the largest floods since the river became regulated by a series of high dams in the mid-20th century (greater than 150,000 cubic feet per second during the peak). The flood persisted through most of the summer, eroding river banks, adding sand to sandbars, and moving the thalweg of the channel in many places. The U.S. Geological Survey monitored and assessed the changes in two reaches of the Missouri River: the Garrison Reach in North Dakota, bounded by the Garrison Dam and the Lake Oahe Reservoir, and the Recreational Reach along the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska bounded upstream by the Gavins Point Dam and extending downstream from Ponca, Nebraska. Historical cross-section data from the Garrison Dam closure until immediately before the flood indicate that the upper reaches of the river near the dam experienced rapid erosion, channel incision, and island/sandbar loss following the dam closure. The erosion, incision, and land loss lessened with time. Conversely, the lower reach near the Lake Oahe Reservoir slackwaters became depositional with channel in-filling and sandbar growth through time as the flow slowed upon reaching the reservoir. Preliminary post-flood results in the Garrison Reach indicate that the main channel has deepened at most cross-sections whereas sandbars and islands have grown vertically. Sandbars and the thalweg migrated within the Recreational Reach, however net scouring and aggradation was minimal. Changes in the two-dimensional area of sandbars and islands are still being assessed using high-resolution satellite imagery. A sediment balance can be constructed for the Garrison Reach using cross-sections, bathymetric data, sand traps for wind-blown material, a quasi-three-dimensional numerical model, and dating of sediment cores. Data collection and analysis for a reach-scale sediment balance and a concurrent analysis of the effects of riparian and island vegetation on sediment deposition currently (2014) is ongoing.

Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota↗