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Search indexed USGS publications on groundwater, aquifers, geologic maps, mineral resources and earthquakes. Explore source records by subject and place.

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1,612 records · Page 81Linked to original sources
USGS2001

Water, ice, meteorological, and speed measurements at South Cascade Glacier, Washington, 1999 balance year

Winter snow accumulation and summer snow, firn, and ice melt were measured at South Cascade Glacier, Washington, to determine the winter and net balances for the 1999 balance year. The 1999 winter snow balance, averaged over the glacier, was 3.59 meters, and the net balance was 1.02 meters. Since the winter balance record began in 1959, only three winters have had a higher winter balance. Since the net balance record began in 1953, only 2 years have had a greater positive net balance than 1999. Runoff was measured from the glacier and an adjacent non-glacierized basin. Air temperature, precipitation, and humidity were measured nearby, and ice speed was measured. This report makes these data available to the glaciological and climatological community.

Washington↗
USGS2024

Substrate Enhancement Pilot Project—Monitoring summary and evaluation, Kootenai River, Idaho, 2012–22

To assess changes in substrate conditions and the efficacy of artificially placed substrates at select sites on the Kootenai River near Bonners Ferry, Idaho, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Kootenai Tribe of Idaho, completed repeat bathymetric, velocimetric, and underwater videography surveys. Collectively, three project sites throughout the Kootenai River make up the Substrate Enhancement Pilot Project (SEPP), an effort intended to improve spawning and egg incubation viability at locations identified to be aquatic habitat limited for the endangered Kootenai River white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). Following the placement of coarse substrates at each site, bathymetric, velocimetric, and underwater videography data were collected from 2012 to 2022 to assess the role of deposition and erosion on maintaining suitable white sturgeon spawning and incubation substrates. Minimal erosion and deposition occurred at all Substrate Enhancement Pilot Project sites, according to interannual and intra-annual net volumetric changes between bathymetric surveys. Depending on the timing of bathymetric surveys relative to the annual peak streamflow conditions, isolated locations of deposition or erosion were observed at each site and the potential for deposition or erosion was supported by measured mean depth-averaged velocities. This study concluded that variability of deposition and scour were common at each site throughout the monitoring period and may be attributed to fluctuations in streamflow. Repeat bathymetric, underwater videography, and velocity mapping surveys were used to verify the interstitial spaces and surfaces of substrates at each SEPP site remained free of fine sediments for intervals longer than a year but were susceptible to deposition between high streamflow events.

Idaho↗
USGS2024

Parsimonious high-resolution landslide susceptibility modeling at continental scales

Landslide susceptibility maps are fundamental tools for risk reduction, but the coarse resolution of current continental-scale models is insufficient for local application. Complex relations between topographic and environmental attributes characterizing landslide susceptibility at local scales are not transferrable across areas without landslide data. Existing maps with multiple susceptibility classifications under-represent landslide potential in moderate and gently sloping terrain. We leverage an extensive landslide database ( N = 613,724), a high-resolution digital elevation model (10-m), and high-performance computing resources, to develop a new nationwide susceptibility map for the contiguous United States, Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico. We calculate four alternative linear and nonlinear thresholds of topographic slope and relief using an objective split-sample calibration. We down-sample our results to a 90-m grid to account for uncertainty in the digital elevation model and landslide position, and evaluate these thresholds' ability to differentiate areas of greater susceptibility. The less conservative nonlinear model optimally balances our priorities of capturing observed landslides (99%) while minimizing area covered by susceptible terrain (43%). Independent evaluation with four statewide landslide inventories ( N = 172,367) reinforces our model selection but highlights spatially variable performance. Therefore, we propose a novel approach to susceptibility classification using the concentration of landslide-prone terrain within each down-sampled grid. While landslides are possible within any cells containing susceptible terrain, those with the highest concentration capture the majority of observed landslides. Our new map characterizes landside susceptibility more consistently than prior models; our transparent classification approach also provides flexibility for accommodating different tolerances in risk reduction measures.

AGU Advances↗
USGS2025

Beyond the mangroves: A global synthesis of tidal forested wetland types, drivers and future information opportunities

There is increasing awareness of the global diversity of tidal forested wetlands (TFWs) and their significance in the provision of ecosystem services. These ecosystems, including mangrove forests, tidal freshwater forested wetlands, supratidal forests and transitional forests together span multiple climatic zones, geomorphic settings, and inundation and salinity regimes. We utilise case studies across five continents to demonstrate the state of knowledge among TFWs. Intertidal mangroves are the best-defined of the TFWs thanks to decades of research on their geomorphology, hydrology and ecology across their broad distribution. Non-mangrove forest settings, however, demonstrate more diverse hydrological, biochemical and vegetation conditions. In many cases, non-mangrove forests are situated at upper intertidal or supratidal elevations, where surface waters and groundwater are subject to interactions between tides freshwater inputs. Salinity datasets show variations ranging from tidal freshwater forested wetlands and ‘low-salinity mangroves’ to mesohaline or marine salinities, often with high temporal variability. While the floristic composition of non-mangrove forests vary among biogeographic regions, locally dominant TFW species are commonly distributed beyond the tidal niche into non-tidal wetland and upland forests. This presents challenges for traditional remote sensing approaches to ecosystem mapping, which are mostly lacking for non-mangrove forests. Geomorphic approaches and developments in machine learning offer opportunities to address this.

Preprint↗
USGS2026

Software to support remote sensing of river discharge based on critical flow theory

Water resource management requires accurate observations of streamflow but standard field methods for measuring river discharge ( Q ) are costly and can be hazardous for equipment and personnel. Remote sensing has become a viable alternative, but many image-based techniques require field data for calibration and depth and velocity can seldom be mapped with a single sensor. A new approach based on critical flow theory, in contrast, allows both of these attributes to be inferred from readily available image data. This technique only pertains to sites with standing waves, called undular hydraulic jumps (UHJs), but a recent investigation demonstrated its potential to provide accurate discharge estimates. This paper introduces software designed to facilitate Inferring Q from UHJs Identified in River Images (InQUIRI). The package includes modules for retrieving data from image servers, making the measurements of wavelength and width required to calculate discharge, inferring a representative wavelength from a profile digitized along a wave train, combining multiple estimates to obtain an ensemble median discharge, and assessing accuracy via comparison to gage records from the U.S. Geological Survey. By making these steps easier to implement, InQUIRI enables users to apply the workflow to a variety of UHJ-containing images. Accumulating more case studies, some successful and others less so, would help constrain the range of applicability of the critical flow approach and foster development of refined guidelines for selecting and measuring waves. The software described herein could play an important role in promoting informed use of this new technique for non-contact streamflow measurement.

Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah↗
USGS2026

Geothermal district energy systems coupled with seasonal underground thermal energy storage: A U.S. techno-economic screening by climate and geology

In the United States, cooling-dominated commercial building loads can cause geothermal heat pump-based district energy systems to accumulate a long-term subsurface thermal imbalance, motivating the incorporation of seasonal underground thermal energy storage. We developed a transferable workflow to evaluate geothermal district systems that pair ground heat exchangers with seasonal underground thermal energy storage. Using standardized hourly loads for seven commercial buildings and a uniform cost framework, we simulated ten U.S. cities with a physics-based ground heat exchanger model, subsurface storage simulations, and economic assessment to isolate the roles of climate and hydrogeology. In cooling-dominated cities, underground thermal energy storage supplied the majority of annual cooling, cutting electricity use and summer peaks substantially while achieving levelized costs comparable to or below conventional chiller-boiler plants. In cooler climates, the storage share shrunk, required borefield size and costs rose, and levelized cost of energy increased nearly linearly with declining underground thermal energy storage fraction, indicating storage fraction as the primary economic lever. Sensitivity analysis showed capital risk dominated by borefield drilling and surface heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning and piping, with underground thermal energy storage costs secondary. This workflow provides a transparent foundation for site-specific design and screening of next-generation geothermal district energy systems.

Arizona, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi↗
USGS2026

Ground motions from finite faults with unknown geometry

Earthquake emergency response and loss modeling require accurate models of ground‐motion intensity metrics (IMs), such as those produced by ShakeMap. In the critical minutes and hours after an earthquake, however, knowledge of the earthquake source geometry limits the accuracy of these models, especially in areas where seismic instrumentation is insufficient to constrain the shaking intensity pattern. Previous attempts to overcome this limitation have centered on computing the mean distance metrics from a suite of assumed source geometries. That approach is inadequate with modern ground‐motion models (GMMs) because they typically include terms for the hanging wall effect, depth to top of rupture, and other nonlinear terms. Such approaches also propagate the distance uncertainty through the GMMs and may not properly allocate the additional uncertainty into the between‐ and within‐event components. Here we present Finite‐Fault SIMulation with Mixed Effects Regression (FFSIMMER), a method to address these limitations by computing IM distributions from a suite of rupture realizations that fully accounts for all geometry‐related GMM terms and allows for the separation of the between‐ and within‐event components of the total uncertainty. The accuracy of this method is limited by the available constraints on the source parameters. To address this, FFSIMMER can incorporate constraints based on knowledge of the source, such as the approximate strike and dip based on knowledge of the plate tectonics and focal mechanism of the earthquake. We demonstrate the improvement in accuracy that can be achieved with the 2025 M 7.7 Mandalay, Burma (Myanmar), earthquake by incorporating constraints on the range of plausible source parameters.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2025

Fault displacement model for surface principal rupture of strike-slip faults

The probability distribution model for principal displacement accommodated on the surface main trace is a critical input to the fault displacement hazard analysis. This article presents a new model for strike-slip ruptures in the moment magnitude ( M ) range of 6 to 8.3. The new model is the outcome of a multi-year research effort to update the widely used model developed by Petersen and others in 2011. Updates include the adoption of the Fault Displacement Hazard Initiative database and enhancements to rupture and displacement data preparation. Statistical formulation and estimation have also been updated substantially. A three-parameter modified normal distribution that we refer to as the negative Exponentially Modified Gaussian distribution is adopted to model the probability distribution of the natural logarithm of principal displacement. Formulation for the mean parameter of the modified normal includes a random earthquake term, a nonlinear scaling relation with M , and an ellipse function for along-main-trace variation. The aleatory variability of the updated model now depends on M as well as site’s along-main-trace position. These updates not only significantly improve the fit to the distribution of the observed displacements but also yield reasonable 95th percentile predictions for M > 7.5 events. Alternative models representing the estimation uncertainty of the M -scaling relation are also developed. These new models are compared to the previous model in terms of percentile predictions and the calculated hazard curves. The steeper hazard curves from the new models yield a lower exceedance rate than the normal-distribution based model developed previously by Petersen and others.

Earthquake Spectra↗
USGS2026

Estimation of parental abundance using hierarchical Bayesian modeling with data augmentation

Pedigree-based estimation methods leverage the fact that each offspring in a cohort is genotypically “marked” by its parents and represent a recent and promising toolset for estimating population dynamics. This includes pedigree accumulation estimators that model the “accumulation” of inferred unique parents within a given cohort to estimate parental abundance. Unlike close-kin mark-recapture approaches, which rely on intercohort comparisons, pedigree accumulation modeling can be completed solely using intracohort samples. This is particularly advantageous for semelparous species, where intercohort pairs are impossible and adult life stages can be difficult to sample without affecting their likelihood of successfully reproducing. Previous work has evaluated a range of estimators for such datasets, concluding that the non-parametric Chao estimator provides the most accurate and precise estimates for feasible levels of sampling effort. We used simulated data to evaluate an alternative estimator based on hierarchical modeling and data augmentation in a Bayesian framework. Results indicate that estimates from the hierarchical Bayesian estimator had comparable accuracy and better precision than both the previously tested Chao1 estimator and the improved iChao formulation across a range of sample sizes and sex ratios. Furthermore, the Bayesian estimator was far more robust to simulated errors in pedigree reconstruction, especially the presence of false negatives. Hierarchical Bayesian pedigree accumulation models can also provide additional insight into underlying reproductive ecology through their use of an explicit observation process, allowing for the incorporation or estimation of species- and population-specific reproductive dynamics. More broadly, the parametric nature of these models offers opportunities to efficiently pool information among datasets as well as to propagate uncertainty within more complex models.

Ecology and Evolution↗
USGS2024

GRAPES: Earthquake early warning by passing seismic vectors through the grapevine

Estimating an earthquake's magnitude and location may not be necessary to predict shaking in real time; instead, wavefield-based approaches predict shaking with few assumptions about the seismic source. Here, we introduce GRAph Prediction of Earthquake Shaking (GRAPES), a deep learning model trained to characterize and propagate earthquake shaking across a seismic network. We show that GRAPES’ internal activations, which we call “seismic vectors”, correspond to the arrival of distinct seismic phases. GRAPES builds upon recent deep learning models applied to earthquake early warning by allowing for continuous ground motion prediction with seismic networks of all sizes. While trained on earthquakes recorded in Japan, we show that GRAPES, without modification, outperforms the ShakeAlert earthquake early warning system on the 2019 M7.1 Ridgecrest, CA earthquake.

Shimane/HiroshimaPrefectures↗
USGS2024

Upper crustal seismic velocity structure of the Hayward fault zone, San Francisco Bay, California, USA: Results from the 2016 East Bay Seismic Experiment (EBSI-16)

We developed Vp, Vs, Vp / Vs ratio, and Poisson’s ratio models of the uppermost crust (<4 km depth) from the eastern San Francisco (SF) Bay (California, USA) to near the Calaveras fault along a 15-km-long, linear profile. Upper crustal velocities are highly variable beneath, west, and well east of the Hayward fault. We observe eight notable features, from west to east: (1) Near San Francisco Bay, there is an ~2-km-wide structure with high Vp / Vs ratios (up to 5) and Poisson’s ratios (up to 0.48) extending from the surface to the base of our model, which we suggest the structure is a near-vertical fault that lies along a straight-line projection between the Silver Creek fault to the south and the Point Richmond fault to the north. The structure may be part of an ~90-km-long fault along the eastern SF Bay. (2) The western East Bay Plain, the lower lying area between the bay and the hills, includes up to 800 m of low-velocity sediments ( Vp ~1600–3000 m/s, Vs ~500 m/s to ~1000 m/s), underlain by higher velocity basement rocks ( Vp ~3000–5800 m/s; Vs ~1000–1500 m/s). (3) Between ~1 km and 3 km east of the Bay shoreline, sediments thin in a series of steps (likely faults) toward the Hayward fault. (4) Between ~3 km west and ~1 km east of the Hayward fault (at the East Chabot fault) at depths greater than 1 km, basement Vp (up to 6000 m/s) and Vs (up to 2800 m/s) are high, and Vp / Vs ratios (<2) and Poisson’s ratios (<0.3) are low, suggesting crystalline rocks. Furthermore, a near-vertical zone of low Vp / Vs ratios and Poisson’s ratios is between near-surface traces of the Hayward and East Chabot faults, likely corresponding to the San Leandro Gabbro of Ponce et al. (2003) . (5) Eastward of the East Chabot fault in the upper 1.5 km, basement Vp (~3000 m/s to ~4200 m/s) and Vs (~1200–2000 m/s) are lower than those west of the fault. (6) In the eastern Hayward/Oakland Hills, there are zones of laterally varying, high- and low-velocity ( Vp ~2500–3000 m/s) Jurassic–Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments in the shallow subsurface that likely extend much deeper than imaged. (7) Seismic energy that propagates westward from sources east of the Hayward fault (HF) appear weaker than energy that propagates eastward from sources west of the HF, suggesting that the HF acts as a partial barrier to shallow seismic energy propagation into the more populated eastern SF Bay area. (8) Unlike many fault zones, it appears that the active trace of the Hayward fault (in our study area) is not cored by a prominent, low-velocity zone relative to rocks to the east and west of the active trace. However, the active trace does mark a prominent change from relatively higher velocities to the west and lower velocities to the east.

California↗
USGS2025

Estimation of the accessible and useful resource base for electric-grade enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) resources of the Great Basin, USA

Scientists with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) recently completed a provisional assessment of the electric-grade geothermal resources associated with the low-permeability geologic formations of the Great Basin, USA, where resources are assumed to be accessible using enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) technologies (i.e., the engineering of sufficient permeability to facilitate efficient heat extraction). This assessment required estimation of the accessible resource base (electric-grade heat [>90ºC] at depths where drilling and stimulation are deemed achievable using current technology) and useful resource (heat that can be extracted from the accessible region). Electric-grade heat can be estimated from existing temperature models. The accessible resource base can be estimated as the electric-grade heat that exists at depths shallower than 6 km based on the limitations of current drilling and stimulation technologies, along with evidence for sustained natural fracture conductivity at depth. The useful part of the accessible heat can be estimated as the product of three efficiencies and factors: the heat extraction efficiency, the viable geology factor, and the reservoir spacing efficiency. The accessible and useful parts of the resource can be estimated in units of heat, or in units of electric power using an electrical conversion efficiency, which is a function of resource temperature. We also estimate the ranges for each of the efficiencies and describe the motivations behind the choice of best estimates used for the recent assessment. An analytic solution is provided for the useful resource above any depth (in units of electric power), where efficiency estimation assumes nearly steady heat extraction rates that cool reservoirs to 90ºC over 30 years of power generation.

Great Basin↗
USGS2025

Structural controls on splay fault rupture dynamics during Cascadia megathrust earthquakes

Great subduction earthquakes ( M w ≥ 8.0) can generate devastating tsunamis by rapidly displacing the seafloor and overlying water column. These potentially tsunamigenic seafloor offsets result from coseismic fault slip and deformation beneath or within the accretionary wedge. The mechanics of these shallow rupture phenomena and their dependence on subduction zone properties remain unresolved, partly due to the sparsity of offshore observations of shallow megathrust earthquake deformation. Here, we analyze how offshore structure influences shallow rupture mechanics and slip partitioning using 3D dynamic earthquake simulations of the Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ) megathrust with and without variably dipping seaward- or landward-vergent splay faults in the wedge that sole into the megathrust. Resulting tradeoffs between splay and megathrust slip reveal structural controls on rupture partitioning, with greater splay slip leading to less shallow megathrust slip updip. Gently dipping and seaward-vergent splays host more slip than those with steeper, landward-vergent splays. To isolate the underlying mechanisms, we compare models with Andersonian and plunging principal stresses. Results suggest distinct static and dynamic processes control the dip- and vergence-dependence of splay rupture: static (mis)alignment relative to far-field tectonic loading favors slip on more optimally oriented, shallowly dipping splay faults. In contrast, dynamic stress interactions of an updip-propagating megathrust rupture front with the free surface and potential branch faults favor forward branching onto seaward-vergent splays and inhibit backward branching onto landward-vergent splays. Resulting seafloor displacements suggest splay fault structure may influence coseismic tsunami source processes, highlighting the importance of dynamically viable rupture scenarios in subduction hazard assessments.

Cascadia subduction zone↗
USGS2025

Application of Hydrologic Simulation Program—FORTRAN (HSPF) as part of an integrated hydrologic model for the Salinas Valley, California

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the Monterey County Water Resources Agency, conducted studies to help evaluate the surface-water and groundwater resources of the Salinas Valley study area, consisting of the entire Salinas River watershed and several smaller, adjacent coastal watersheds draining into Monterey Bay. The Salinas Valley study area is a highly productive agricultural region that depends on the coordinated use of surface water and groundwater to meet demand for irrigation and public water supply. To continue to meet these demands, a better understanding of the historical water balance and the effects of water-resource development on the long-term sustainability of water resources in the Salinas Valley study area is needed.

California↗
USGS2025

A framework for understanding the effects of subsurface agricultural drainage on downstream flows

Understanding controls on streamflow volume and magnitude is important to water resource management applications, such as critical water and transportation structure design and floodplain mapping. Changes in land use and agricultural practices, such as subsurface agricultural drainage, may be contributing to changes in streamflow characteristics. Subsurface agricultural drainage, also known as tile drainage, is the practice of installing drains in the subsurface of agricultural fields to improve productivity. Because of the complex interactions between subsurface drainage systems, precipitation, local soil conditions, and land management practices, it is difficult to determine how subsurface agricultural drainage affects downstream flow. Previously developed subsurface agricultural drainage conceptual models under dry, saturated, and winter conditions are summarized, and current literature on the effects of subsurface agricultural drainage on downstream flows, focusing on peak flow, non-event flow, and total flow to develop frameworks for discussing these systems is compiled. The effects that subsurface drainage has on hydrologic systems are expected to vary by site and are seasonally based on system design, soil type, moisture conditions, precipitation characteristics, and land conditions. Subsurface drainage can affect the magnitude of peak flow by converting surface runoff from a storm event to subsurface runoff. By increasing hydrologic connectivity of a catchment, subsurface drainage can increase non-event flow or the flow between two storm events, typically dependent on lateral flow through the subsurface and groundwater. Theoretically, by diverting water from groundwater recharge or by reducing water available for evapotranspiration, subsurface drainage may increase the total volume of flow. Precipitation changes may increase infiltration, excess overland flow, and flood risk regardless of the presence or absence of subsurface drainage.

Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Mon↗
USGS2026

Mineral chemistry perspective on remobilization of stored magma at Kamakai'a Hills, Southwest Rift Zone of Kilauea, Island of Hawai'i, USA

Differentiated magmas stored in the rift zones of Kīlauea have received more attention in recent years following eruption of andesite during the early phase of 2018 lower East Rift Zone activity. Despite this growing interest, some of the most voluminous eruptions of differentiated rift zone magmas remain poorly studied. One such eruption, and the most voluminous exposed differentiated flow field at Kīlauea, is the Kamakaiʻa Hills. This eruption took place in the Southwest Rift Zone of Kīlauea, a region that is hypothesized to contain a long-lived rift zone reservoir. The Kamakaiʻa Hills flow field encompasses >250 × 10 6 m 3 of basaltic andesite and basalt compositions with a mineral assemblage of orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + plagioclase during its early ʻaʻā phase and clinopyroxene + plagioclase + olivine during its late pāhoehoe phase. To better understand storage conditions and magma accumulation, this study focuses on major, minor, and trace elements from the mineral assemblage present within the early ʻaʻā and late pāhoehoe phases. The diversity of clinopyroxene and plagioclase compositions within the early ʻaʻā and late pāhoehoe phases, as well as diverse compositions of plagioclase and orthopyroxene within the early ʻaʻā phase, suggest multiple magma bodies and limited pre-eruption magma mixing within the broader Kamakaiʻa Hills reservoir. Oscillatory zoning patterns (particularly in clinopyroxene) imply processes such as recharge events, magma mixing or mingling, or convection within a differentially cooling, chemically stratified reservoir over protracted time intervals, whereas only limited resorbed mineral textures indicate incomplete mixing of heat and chemically distinct magmas during the dike intrusion that triggered the eruption. Mineral-mineral and mineral-melt thermobarometry indicate predominantly shallow (≤2.5 km depth) crustal storage conditions of the cooled, differentiated magma (∼1100 °C and cooler for the basaltic andesites) to hotter temperatures for the basalts (all >1100 °C). Despite the known large standard errors estimated for mineral-melt and mineral-mineral barometry (10s to >100 MPa), the calculated pressures and depths broadly correspond with earthquake swarm depths beneath the Kamakaiʻa Hills, and drill core and fluid inclusion barometry storage depths of differentiated magmas within the lower East Rift Zone. The Kamakaiʻa Hills differentiated magmas have H 2 O contents (∼0.5 wt%, using plagioclase-melt hygrometry) equivalent to typical Kīlauea basalts. Our data and interpretations demonstrate a complex, long-lived rift zone storage system that consisted of multiple magma bodies and was mobilized into eruption through intrusion of a hotter and more primitive summit-derived (uprift) magma.

Hawaii↗
USGS2023

Overview of the Cenozoic geology of the northern Harrat Rahat volcanic field, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

The Harrat Rahat volcanic field, located in the west-central part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is one of the larger Cenozoic harrats among the more than 17 harrats situated upon the Arabia Plate. The map plate contained herein shows, at a scale of 1:100,000, the mapped volcanic geology of northern Harrat Rahat, which consists of the northernmost one-fifth of Harrat Rahat. Northern Harrat Rahat has an area of about 3,340 square kilometers (km 2 ), of which 2,567 km 2 is covered by Harrat Rahat volcanic rocks and deposits, and it encompasses more than 900 exposed vents (that is, craters, cryptodomes, maars, and scoria cones), 289 of which are isolated by younger volcanic deposits and have not been correlated with the 234 volcanic rock units distinguished by geologic mapping. Northern Harrat Rahat is of special interest owing to its proximity to the city of Al Madinah al Munawwarah, which sits within, and is continuing to expand southward over, the north end of the volcanic field. Al Madinah is home to an expanding population, currently at more than 2 million residents, together with the intermittent addition of approximately 3 million pilgrims during Hajj and Umrah (religious visitations). The center of Al Madinah is less than 8 km from lava flows of the only confirmed historically documented eruption, which occurred in 1256 C.E. (654 A.H.). Earlier prehistoric lava flows also encroached into the area of the present-day city limits, as demonstrated by volcanic rocks exposed widely throughout the city in roadcuts, parks, and excavations for new buildings, although no evidence has been found of any other than the 1256 C.E. lava having reached that area during times of human habitation. Geologic mapping was undertaken by the U.S. Geological Survey in collaboration with the Saudi Geological Survey. The features of primary interest within the map area are scoria cones, lava flows, lava domes, craters, and pyroclastic deposits from the Quaternary, which have compositions of basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, benmoreite, and trachyte. The geologic mapping was published by Downs and others (2019) on a single sheet at 1:75,000 scale and two detailed sheets at 1:25,000 scale, accompanied by detailed explanations of the geology. This report presents the geology on a single sheet at 1:100,000 scale and provides condensed geologic explanations for the convenience of readers of this volume. Some minor errors of nomenclature and lava source regions that do not change fundamental interpretations have been corrected herein.

Professional Paper↗
USGS2024

Colored shaded relief bathymetry and acoustic backscatter of Ozette Lake, Washington

Offshore of the Pacific Northwest of the United States is the Cascadia Subduction Zone, a 1,000-kilometer-long tectonic boundary defined by a large fault, called a megathrust, that extends from the Mendocino Junction off northern California to the Nootka Fracture Zone off Vancouver Island, Canada (U.S. Geological Survey, 2023). The Juan de Fuca and Gorda oceanic plates to the west of this boundary subduct under the North America continental plate to the east. Several other smaller faults that cut through the North America plate crust also affect the region. Although their effects upon Ozette Lake are uncertain, geological evidence for past earthquakes, such as underwater landslides, may be found in Pacific Northwest lakes. Underwater landslides caused by past earthquakes should be well preserved in these relatively undisturbed lake environments. The floor of Ozette Lake, Washington, located along the Pacific coast of the United States, west of the Puget Sound region and about 140 kilometers east of the megathrust was mapped by the U.S. Geological Survey in July of 2019 to search for evidence of past earthquakes. Mapping was completed using a SWATHplus-M 234-kHz interferometric side scan sonar system pole-mounted on the U.S. Geological Survey research vessel San Lorenzo. The system collected full-coverage bathymetric and acoustic backscatter data that were processed to 2-meter spatial resolution (Dartnell and others, 2024). This two-map series displays the results of this mapping. A colored shaded relief bathymetry map (sheet 1) and an acoustic backscatter map (sheet 2) show the lake floor morphology and backscatter intensities, respectively, that can be analyzed for evidence of past earthquakes.

Washington↗