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USGS2024

The skin I live in: Pathogenesis of white-nose syndrome of bats

The emergence of white-nose syndrome (WNS) in North America has resulted in mass mortalities of hibernating bats and total extirpation of local populations. The need to mitigate this disease has stirred a significant body of research to understand its pathogenesis. Pseudogymnoascus destructans , the causative agent of WNS, is a psychrophilic (cold-loving) fungus that resides within the class Leotiomycetes, which contains mainly plant pathogens and is unrelated to other consequential pathogens of animals. In this review, we revisit the unique biology of hibernating bats and P . destructans and provide an updated analysis of the stages and mechanisms of WNS progression. The extreme life history of hibernating bats, the psychrophilic nature of P . destructans , and its evolutionary distance from other well-characterized animal-infecting fungi translate into unique host–pathogen interactions, many of them yet to be discovered.

PLoS Pathogens↗

USGS2014

Aggression and coexistence in female caribou

Female caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) are highly gregarious, yet there has been little study of the behavioral mechanisms that foster coexistence. Quantifying patterns of aggression between male and female, particularly in the only cervid taxa where both sexes grow antlers, should provide insight into these mechanisms. We asked if patterns of aggression by male and female caribou followed the pattern typically noted in other polygynous cervids, in which males display higher frequencies and intensity of aggression. From June to August in 2011 and 2012, we measured the frequency and intensity of aggression across a range of group sizes through focal animal sampling of 170 caribou (64 males and 106 females) on Adak Island in the Aleutian Archipelago, Alaska. Males in same-sex and mixed-sex groups and females in mixed-sex groups had higher frequencies of aggression than females in same-sex groups. Group size did not influence frequency of aggression. Males displayed more intense aggression than females. Frequent aggression in mixed-sex groups probably reflects lower tolerance of males for animals in close proximity. Female caribou were less aggressive and more gregarious than males, as in other polygynous cervid species.

Alaska↗

USGS2024

Neonate morphometrics and lambing season characteristics of desert bighorn sheep

Desert bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis ) populations often occur in remote areas at low densities, leading to gaps in knowledge of life history. In November 2011, we translocated 11 female desert bighorn sheep from the Fra Cristobal Mountains and 9 from Red Rock Wildlife Management Area (RRWMA) to the Peloncillo Mountains in southwestern New Mexico. In December 2012, we captured 21 adult females in the Peloncillo Mountains, 14 of which were recaptured from 2011. We fitted each animal with a very high frequency (VHF) collar and vaginal implant transmitter (VIT) to monitor for parturition. We captured 26 lambs (5 females, 7 males in 2012; 7 males, 7 females in 2013), recorded morphometric measurements and fitted lambs with VHF collars to monitor survival. Over the study, 14 lambs died, with 12 mortalities from predation, one from abandonment, and one from unknown causes. Lambing season was protracted over 3–4 months and survival was unrelated to birth timing. Body mass differences between sex varied by year, suggesting a connection to annual climate. Because most studies focus on captive animals with access to supplemental food, captive lambs may not be representative of free-ranging populations. Thus, we investigated morphological trends in a free-ranging population.

Mammalia↗

USGS2011

Winter distribution of willow flycatcher subspecies

Documenting how different regions across a species' breeding and nonbreeding range are linked via migratory movements is the first step in understanding how events in one region can influence events in others and is critical to identifying conservation threats throughout a migratory animal's annual cycle. We combined two studies that evaluated migratory connectivity in the Willow Flycatcher ( Empidonax traillii ), one using mitochondrial DNA sequences from 172 flycatchers sampled throughout their winter range, and another which examined morphological characteristics of 68 museum specimens collected in the winter range. Our results indicate that the four subspecies occupy distinct but overlapping regions of the winter range. Connectivity between specific breeding and winter grounds appears to be moderate to strong, with distributions that suggest migration patterns of both the chain and leap-frog types connecting the breeding and nonbreeding grounds. The Pacific lowlands of Costa Rica appear to be a key winter location for the endangered Southwestern Willow Flycatcher ( E. t. extimus ), although other countries in Central America may also be important for the subspecies.

The Condor↗

USGS1993

Fish meal and alternate sources of protein in fish feeds: Update 1993

Close to 12% of the world's 6.5 million metric tons of fish meal is used for aquaculture feeds. If current trends continue, roughly 20% to 25% of total world fish meal production could be used for aquaculture by the year 2000. Fish stocks used in fish meal reduction, however, appear to be in worldwide decline. A growing fish farming industry and a stagnating, if not diminishing, supply of fish meal have sobering economic and technologic implications for fish culture. Unless suitable alternate protein sources are found or other animal feeds begin to rely less on fish meal, fish production costs can be expected to increase dramatically. A precedent was set by the poultry industry, the most economically successful and competitive of the animal agriculture industries. Twenty years ago, the poultry industry consumed up to 80% of fish meal supplies. Through deliberate and well-organized research into alternate protein sources, the industry now uses less than 40% of supplies, and the trend is toward complete independence from fish meal. A comparable research effort is needed for aquaculture. Considering the biotechnologies available, plant proteins, processed to remove enzyme inhibitors and other antinutritional factors and properly supplemented with essential amino acids and minerals where needed, could produce results at least equivalent to those obtained with fish meal.

Fisheries↗

USGS1940

Scyphidia micropteri, a new protozoan parasite of largemouth and smallmouth black bass

A small urn‐shaped peritrichous protozoan, apparently an undescribed species, was found on the gills and bodies of largemouth and smallmouth black bass in ponds at Leetown, West Virginia. A heavy mortality among a lot of fingerling largemouth bass probably resulted from suffocation due to the organisms on the gills. Specimens of the parasite, preserved in formalin, measured about 57 microns in length and 24 microns in maximum width. The base of the animal consists of a circular disc about 6 microns in diameter. No evidence was found that the sucker‐like attachment disc penetrated the epidermal cells of the host causing necrotic tissue. The anterior or upper end of the animal has a ciliary disc and two rows of cilia. The body is without cilia and is annulared. The macronucleus is very large, has the shape of an inverted cone and occupies much of the lower half of the body. The small micronucleus apparently lies in the slightly concave surface of the upper part of the macronucleus, although there is doubt on this point. This new species was named Scyphidia micropteri after Micropterus, the generic name of the smallmouth black bass, one of its hosts. The species recently was found by Dr. H. S. Davis on gills of largemouth black bass collected in Radnor Lake, Tennessee, which indicates a wide geographical distribution of the parasite.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS1975

Inhibition of salt water survival and Na-K-ATPase elevation in steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) by moderate water temperatures

The steelhead trout metamorphosis from a freshwater parr to a sea water-tolerant smolt possessing the migration tendency was evaluated at six different growth temperatures ranging from 6 to 15 C during January through July. The highest temperature where a transformation was indicated was 11.3 C. By April fish reared at 6 C had elevated ATPase levels typical of smolts or migratory animals and showed 92% survival in sea water. Ten and 11.3 C-reared fish showed a short-lived elevation in ATPase in mid-April alone concurrently with 100% sea water survival at that time. Only in 6 C-reared animals did the salt water survival ability continue into May. High ATPase levels likewise were prolonged into May and June only in the 6 C-reared group. The data indicate that metamorphosis (and therefore successful migration) of juvenile steelhead trout is directly controlled by water temperature.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS1995

Growth and survival of newly parasitic sea lampreys at representative winter temperatures

Larval sea lampreys Petromyzon marinus begin to metamorphose into their parasitic phase in July and migrate to the Great Lakes either in autumn, when they immediately feed on fish, or in spring after overwintering in the stream substrate. Survival and growth of newly parasitic autumn migrants (mean weight, 4.18 g) differed significantly between temperature treatments when sea lampreys were held over winter and allowed to feed on longnose suckers Catostomus catostomus at either the maximum available temperature (&tilde;4°C) or normal surface temperature (minimum <1°C) in the Great Lakes during winter. Survival from December 1990 to June 1991 was 60% for the animals held in the warmer water but only 30% for the animals held in the colder water until 23 April. The average increase in weight was 8.23 g for the 35 survivors in the warmer water but only 5.15 g for the 17 survivors in the colder water. Average increases in weight from December to May for sea lampreys at both temperatures were 3.8 to 6.6 times greater than increases reported previously. A newly metamorphosed sea lamprey that migrates to the Great Lakes in autumn could be 2.5 to 3 times larger in June than one that overwinters in the stream substrate, where it cannot feed, and migrates in spring. Hence, autumn migrants may have an advantage in growth and survival over spring migrants, particularly if food supply is adequate in the warmest stratum of the lake during winter.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS2012

Monitoring oral temperature, heart rate, and respiration rate of West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) during capture and handling in the field

West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) are captured, handled, and transported to facilitate conservation, research, and rehabilitation efforts. Monitoring manatee oral temperature (OT), heart rate (HR), and respiration rate (RR) during out-of-water handling can assist efforts to maintain animal well-being and improve medical response to evidence of declining health. To determine effects of capture on manatee vital signs, we monitored OT, HR, and RR continuously for a 50-min period in 38 healthy, awake, juvenile and adult Florida manatees (T. m. latirostris) and 48 similar Antillean manatees (T. m. manatus). We examined creatine kinase (CK), potassium (K+), serum amyloid A (SAA), and lactate values for each animal to assess possible systemic inflammation and muscular trauma. OT range was 29.5 to 36.2° C, HR range was 32 to 88 beats/min, and RR range was 0 to 17 breaths/5 min. Antillean manatees had higher initial OT, HR, and RR than Florida manatees (p < 0.001). As monitoring time progressed, mean differences between the subspecies were no longer significant. High RR over monitoring time was associated with high lactate concentration. Antillean manatees had higher overall lactate values ([mean ± SD] 20.6 ± 7.8 mmol/L) than Florida manatees (13.7 ± 6.7 mmol/L; p < 0.001). We recommend monitoring manatee OT, HR, and RR during capture and handling in the field or in a captive care setting.

Aquatic Mammals↗

USGS2021

Historic population estimates for bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Aragua, Venezuela indicate monitoring need

This study reports historic capture-mark-recapture survival and abundance estimates of common bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) based on photo-identification surveys of coastal Venezuela (along the Aragua coast between Turiamo Bay and Puerto Colombia). We used the most recent data available: dolphins identified by unique dorsal fin marks during wet and dry season surveys conducted from 2004 to 2008. Dolphin encounter histories were analyzed in the Closed Capture Robust Design framework, with the top model including random movement, constant survival, and capture-recapture probabilities that varied by secondary periods. Survival of marked adults was estimated at 0.99 (95% CI = 0.97 to 1.00). Population estimates for all adults (marked and unmarked) averaged 31 animals (SD = 13.8), and for all dolphins (all adults and calves), 41 animals (SD = 17.2). Coastal bottlenose dolphins face numerous threats, including ship strikes, oil spills, conflict with recreational and industrial fisheries, other negative human interactions, biotoxins, chemicals, noise, freshwater discharge, and coastal development. Further, small populations are, in general, at increased risk due to reduced resiliency and recovery potential when exposed to such threats and to expected environmental and demographic stochasticity. These historic estimates of abundance and survival are critical for establishing a reference state and indicate a need for ongoing monitoring of the small dolphin population while the Aragua coast is still, as of yet, relatively little impacted by humans. Should coastal development increase (as is the global trend) and/or environmental catastrophes (e.g., harmful algal blooms, hurricanes, and oil spills) occur, these historic estimates will be essential for assessing impacts and guiding management and conservation interventions. Our results show year-round dolphin presence and highlight the Venezuelan coastal–oceanic landscape as an area of both future research and conservation importance.

Aragua↗

USGS2000

Hurricanes, coral reefs and rainforests: resistance, ruin and recovery in the Caribbean

The coexistence of hurricanes, coral reefs, and rainforests in the Caribbean demonstrates that highly structured ecosystems with great diversity can flourish in spite of recurring exposure to intense destructive energy. Coral reefs develop in response to wave energy and resist hurricanes largely by virtue of their structural strength. Limited fetch also protects some reefs from fully developed hurricane waves. While storms may produce dramatic local reef damage, they appear to have little impact on the ability of coral reefs to provide food or habitat for fish and other animals. Rainforests experience an enormous increase in wind energy during hurricanes with dramatic structural changes in the vegetation. The resulting changes in forest microclimate are larger than those on reefs and the loss of fruit, leaves, cover, and microclimate has a great impact on animal populations. Recovery of many aspects of rainforest structure and function is rapid, though there may be long-term changes in species composition. While resistance and repair have maintained reefs and rainforests in the past, human impacts may threaten their ability to survive.

Ambio↗

USGS2004

Woodland type and spatial distribution of nymphal Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae)

Spatial distribution patterns of black-legged ticks, Ixodes scapularis , in deciduous and coniferous woodlands were studied by sampling ticks in different woodland types and at sites from which deer had been excluded and by quantifying movement patterns of tick host animals (mammals and birds) at the Lighthouse Tract, Fire Island, NY, from 1994 to 2000. Densities of nymphal ticks were greater in deciduous than coniferous woods in 3 of 7 yr. Only engorged ticks survived the winter, and overwintering survival of engorged larvae in experimental enclosures did not differ between deciduous and coniferous woods. Nymphs were not always most abundant in the same forest type as they had been as larvae, and the habitat shift between life stages differed in direction in different years. Therefore, forest type by itself did not account for tick distribution patterns. Nymphal densities were lower where deer had been excluded compared with areas with deer present for 3 yr after exclusion, suggesting that movement patterns of vertebrate hosts influenced tick distribution, but nymphal densities increased dramatically in one of the enclosures in the fourth year. Therefore, movements of ticks on animal hosts apparently contribute substantially to tick spatial distribution among woodland types, but the factor(s) that determine spatial distribution of nymphal I. scapularis shift from year to year.

New York↗

USGS2006

Comparison of methods used to diagnose generalized inflammatory disease in manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris)

Manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) are afflicted with inflammatory and infectious disease secondary to human interaction, such as boat strike and entanglement, as well as “cold stress syndrome” and pneumonia. White-blood-cell count and fever, primary indicators of systemic inflammation in most species, are insensitive in diagnosing inflammatory disease in manatees. Acute phase-response proteins, such as haptoglobin and serum amyloid A, have proven to be sensitive measures of inflammation/infection in domestic large animal species. This study assessed diagnosis of generalized inflammatory disease by different methods including total white-blood-cell count, albumin: globulin ratio, gel electrophoresis analysis, C-reactive protein, alpha 1 acid glycoprotein, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, and serum amyloid A. Samples were collected from 71 apparently healthy and 27 diseased animals during diagnostic medical examination. Serum amyloid A, measured by ELISA, followed by albumin:globulin ratio, measured by plasma gel electrophoresis, were most sensitive in diagnosing inflammatory disease, with diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of approximately 90%. The reference interval for serum amyloid A is <10–50 μg/ml with an equivocal interval of 51–70 μg/ml. The reference interval for albumin:globulin ratio by plasma gel electrophoresis is 0.7–1.1. Albumin: globulin ratio, calculated using biochemical techniques, was not accurate due to overestimation of albumin by bromcresol green dye-binding methodology. Albumin:globulin ratio, measured by serum gel electrophoresis, has a low sensitivity of 15% due to the lack of fibrinogen in the sample. Haptoglobin, measured by hemoglobin titration, had a reference interval of 0.4–2.4 mg/ml, a diagnostic sensitivity of 60%, and a diagnostic specificity of 93%. The haptoglobin assay is significantly affected by hemolysis. Fibrinogen, measured by heat precipitation, has a reference interval of 100–400 mg/dl, a diagnostic sensitivity of 40%, and a diagnostic specificity of 95%.

Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine↗

USGS2013

Blood mineral concentrations in manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris and Trichechus manatus manatus )

Limited information is available regarding the role of minerals and heavy metals in the morbidity and mortality of manatees. Whole-blood and serum mineral concentrations were evaluated in apparently healthy, free-ranging Florida ( Trichechus manatus latirostris , n = 31) and Belize ( Trichechus manatus manatus , n = 14) manatees. Toxicologic statuses of the animals and of their environment had not been previously determined. Mean mineral whole-blood (WB) and serum values in Florida (FL) and Belize (BZ) manatees were determined, and evaluated for differences with respect to geographic location, relative age, and sex. Mean WB and serum silver, boron, cobalt, magnesium, molybdenum, and WB cadmium concentrations were significantly higher in BZ versus FL manatees ( P ≤ 0.05). Mean WB aluminum, calcium, manganese, sodium, phosphorus, vanadium, and serum zinc concentrations were significantly lower in BZ versus FL manatees. Adult manatees had significant and higher mean WB aluminum, manganese, sodium, antimony, vanadium, and serum manganese and zinc concentrations compared to juvenile animals. Significant and lower mean WB and serum silver, boron, cobalt, and serum copper and strontium concentrations were present in adults compared to juveniles ( P ≤ 0.05). Females had significant and higher mean WB nickel and serum barium compared to males ( P ≤ 0.05). Mean WB arsenic and zinc, and mean serum iron, magnesium, and zinc concentrations fell within toxic ranges reported for domestic species. Results reveal manatee blood mineral concentrations differ with location, age, and sex. Influence from diet, sediment, water, and anthropogenic sources on manatee mineral concentration warrant further investigation.

Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine↗

USGS2015

Improved arrival-date estimates of Arctic-breeding Dunlin ( Calidris alpina arcticola )

The use of stable isotopes in animal ecology depends on accurate descriptions of isotope dynamics within individuals. The prevailing assumption that laboratory-derived isotopic parameters apply to free-living animals is largely untested. We used stable carbon isotopes (δ 13 C) in whole blood from migratory Dunlin ( Calidris alpina arcticola ) to estimate an in situ turnover rate and individual diet-switch dates. Our in situ results indicated that turnover rates were higher in free-living birds, in comparison to the results of an experimental study on captive Dunlin and estimates derived from a theoretical allometric model. Diet-switch dates from all 3 methods were then used to estimate arrival dates to the Arctic; arrival dates calculated with the in situ turnover rate were later than those with the other turnover-rate estimates, substantially so in some cases. These later arrival dates matched dates when local snow conditions would have allowed Dunlin to settle, and agreed with anticipated arrival dates of Dunlin tracked with light-level geolocators. Our study presents a novel method for accurately estimating arrival dates for individuals of migratory species in which return dates are difficult to document. This may be particularly appropriate for species in which extrinsic tracking devices cannot easily be employed because of cost, body size, or behavioral constraints, and in habitats that do not allow individuals to be detected easily upon first arrival. Thus, this isotopic method offers an exciting alternative approach to better understand how species may be altering their arrival dates in response to changing climatic conditions.

The Auk↗

USGS2012

Use of olfactory cues by newly metamorphosed wood frogs (Lithobates sylvaticus) during emigration

Juvenile amphibians are capable of long-distance upland movements, yet cues used for orientation during upland movements are poorly understood. We used newly metamorphosed Wood Frogs ( Lithobates sylvaticus ) to investigate: (1) the existence of innate (i.e., inherited) directionality, and (2) the use of olfactory cues, specifically forested wetland and natal pond cues during emigration. In a circular arena experiment, animals with assumed innate directionality did not orient in the expected direction (suggested by previous studies) when deprived of visual and olfactory cues. This suggests that juvenile Wood Frogs most likely rely on proximate cues for orientation. Animals reared in semi-natural conditions (1500 l cattle tanks) showed a strong avoidance of forested wetland cues in two different experimental settings, although they had not been previously exposed to such cues. This finding is contrary to known habitat use by adult Wood Frogs during summer. Juvenile Wood Frogs were indifferent to the chemical signature of natal pond (cattle tank) water. Our findings suggest that management strategies for forest amphibians should consider key habitat features that potentially influence the orientation of juveniles during emigration movements, as well as adult behavior.

Copeia↗

USGS2011

Mortality of Siberian polecats and black-footed ferrets released onto prairie dog colonies

Black-footed ferrets ( Mustela nigripes ) likely were extirpated from the wild in 1985–1986, and their repatriation depends on captive breeding and reintroduction. Postrelease survival of animals can be affected by behavioral changes induced by captivity. We released neutered Siberian polecats ( M. eversmanii ), close relatives of ferrets, in 1989–1990 on black-tailed prairie dog ( Cynomys ludovicianus ) colonies in Colorado and Wyoming initially to test rearing and reintroduction techniques. Captive-born polecats were reared in cages or cages plus outdoor pens, released from elevated cages or into burrows, and supplementally fed or not fed. We also translocated wild-born polecats from China in 1990 and released captive-born, cage-reared black-footed ferrets in 1991, the 1st such reintroduction of black-footed ferrets. We documented mortality for 55 of 92 radiotagged animals in these studies, mostly due to predation (46 cases). Coyotes ( Canis latrans ) killed 31 ferrets and polecats. Supplementally fed polecats survived longer than nonprovisioned polecats. With a model based on deaths per distance moved, survival was highest for wild-born polecats, followed by pen-experienced, then cage-reared groups. Indexes of abundance (from spotlight surveys) for several predators were correlated with mortality rates of polecats and ferrets due to those predators. Released black-footed ferrets had lower survival rates than their ancestral population in Wyoming, and lower survival than wild-born and translocated polecats, emphasizing the influence of captivity. Captive-born polecats lost body mass more rapidly postrelease than did captive-born ferrets. Differences in hunting efficiency and prey selection provide further evidence that these polecats and ferrets are not ecological equivalents in the strict sense.

Journal of Mammalogy↗

USGS2012

Evidence of cryptic individual specialization in an opportunistic insectivorous bat

Habitat use and feeding behaviors of cryptic animals are often poorly understood. Analyses of stable isotope ratios in animal body tissues can help reveal an individual's location and resource use during tissue growth. We investigated variation in stable isotope ratios of 4 elements (H, C, N, and S) in the hair of a sedentary species of insectivorous bat (Eptesicus fuscus) inhabiting a chemically complex urban landscape. Our objective was to quantify population-level isotopic variation and test for evidence of resource specialization by individuals. Bats were sampled over 3 annual molt cycles at maternity roosts in buildings and variance components analysis was used to test whether intraindividual isotopic variation among molts differed from interindividual variation, after controlling for year and roost-group effects. Consistent with prior evidence that E. fuscus is opportunistic in its habitat use and foraging at the population level, we observed wide population-level variation for all isotopes. This variation likely reflects the chemical complexity of the urban landscape studied. However, isotopic variation among years within marked individuals was lower than variation among marked individuals within year for all isotopes, and carbon signatures indicated resource specialization by roost groups and individuals. This is the 1st study to examine variation in stable isotope ratios of individual wild bats over multiple years. Although our results suggest this population tends toward opportunistic habitat use or prey selection, or both, during molt periods, results also indicate that individuals and groups of bats composing the population might be habitat or dietary specialists—a novel finding for insectivorous bats.

Journal of Mammalogy↗