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At least 1,171 records · Page 65Linked to original sources
USGS1972

Ground-water in the Teresina-Campo Maior area, Piaui, Brazil

The Teresina-Campo Maior area lies in a presently developing farming and grazing region near the margin of drought-prone northeast Brazil where irrigated farming offers the best potential for economic development. The area comprises 9,700 square kilometers largely of catinga-covered tabular uplands which are drained by the perennial Rio Parnatba. The climate is hot and humid most of the year but with distinct wet and dry seasons. Temperature extremes range from 20?C to 39?C and the annum rainfall averages 1,200 millimeters. The area's ground-water reservoir is contained chiefly in sandstone aquifers of six westward-dipping sedimentary rock formations, all part of the Maranhao sedimentary basin. The youngest of these formations, namely the Piaut (Pennsylvarian), Poti (Mississippian), Longa (Upper Devonian), and Cabecas (Middle Devoniar), contain the principal aquifers. Precipitation is the primary source of recharge to these aquifers and is more than sufficient to replenish current withdrawals from wells. Underlying the principal aquifers are the untapped Pimenteiras and Serra Grande Formations (both Lower Devonian) which in areas adjacent to the report area are moderately good to excellent water producers. These aquifers are recharged principally by lateral inflow from the east. Water also occurs in the alluvial deposits (Quaternary) underlying the flood plain of the Rio Parnatba but recurrent and uncontrolled flooding at present (1966) precludes their development. Of little economic importance, because they lie above the zone of saturation, are the thin erosional remnants of the Pastos Bons (Upper Triassic), Matuca, and Pedra de Fogo (both Permian) Formations. There are in the report area about 200 drilled wells most of which are pumped with power-driven engines. The wells range from 40 to 500 meters deep but most do not exceed 150 meters, and practically all are completed open hole. Yields range from 500 liters per day for 6-inch-diameter domestic wells to 240,000 liters per hour for 10-inch high-capacity municipal wells. Although there are many more dug wells than drilled wells, dug wells account for less than 1 percent of the current (1966) draft. The current annual withdrawal from the principal aquifers is approximately 5 million cubic meters of which almost half is used for municipal supply and the rest for rural household and irrigation uses. Additional water for public supply is available from aquifers now being pumped, and larger yields probably could be obtained from rural wells designed to take full advantage of the aquifer. Analyses of 28 samples show that the chemical quality of the water is well below the accepted limits of mineral concentration for most uses. Water from the Longa Formation averages 842 milligrams per liter in total dissolved solids and is more mineralized than that in the Piaul and Port Formations which contain water averaging less than 300 milligrams per liter. The water in the Piaui and Poti aquifers is the most suitable in the area for irrigation and has SAR values of C1-S1 and C2-S1. The quantities of water currently being used for irrigation are relatively small (600,000 cubic meters annually) but will increase substantially when intensive irrigation becomes a reality. Divisio de Hydrogeologia da Superintendancia do Desenvolvimento do Nordeste estimates that about 2,500 million cubic meters of water per year would be needed to irrigate about 250,000 hectares in the Teresina-Campo Maior area (about 25 percent of the total area). This goal, however, is not likely to be realized as the water requirement is five times the estimated natural recharge to the aquifers of the area. Most of the water-bearing formations in the report area have barely been tapped and can be developed a great deal more. In fact, the current annual withdrawal from the principal aquifers is less than 0.0025 percent of a conservative estimate of annual replenishment from rainfall. Additionally, only the

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1977

Relation of bulk precipitation and evapotranspiration to water quality and water resources, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands

St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, lies in what can be considered a true maritime regime, being 600 miles (1000 kilometers) from the nearest continental landmass. The island is composed almost entirely of volcanic rocks mantled by a thin soil seldom more than 2 feet (60 centimeters) thick. Rainfall, averaging about 40 inches (1020 millimeters) annually, has an orographic distribution related to the central ridge of the island, altitude 600 to 1500 feet (180 to 405 meters), and the easterly to northeasterly trade winds. The mineral content of bulk precipitation falling on the island is derived principally from the sea although soil dust contributes much of the calcium, sodium, and bicarbonate. Two-thirds of the sulfate in the precipitation is provided by sea salts; the remainder is derived from other sources. The concentration of the constituents of bulk precipitation fluctuates widely month to month, but the load of the constituents shows little monthly variation. Bulk precipitation is concentrated on the land surface and in the soil zone. From there it is carried into the ground water during recharge or is removed by storm-water runoff. It is the principal source of minerals in the waters of the island. Soil-moisture demand and evaporation limits recharge to 1 to 2 inches (25 to 50 millimeters) annually for the greater part of the island. Evapotranspiration also occurs directly from the aquifer. The salts left further increase the mineralization of the ground water. Water loss from the aquifer by evapotranspiration ranges from 40 to 80 percent of the recharge. Recharge to the aquifers and evapotranspiration of ground water determined by ratios of chloride concentrations in bulk precipitation, surface water, and subsurface water agree favorably with recharge and groundwater loss computed by other means.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1964

Sediment transported by Georgia streams

A reconnaissance investigation of the sediment transported by selected Georgia streams during the period December 1957 to June 1959 was made to provide a general understanding of the physical quality of stream water in Georgia and to supply facts needed in planning more detailed work. The investigation was made by studying the variation of sediment concentration and sediment load with stream discharge at 33 sites and by relating the available data to topographic, geologic, climatic, and soil conditions in the State. In the Blue Ridge Mountains area of northern Georgia the great relief, moderately heavy precipitation, fast runoff, and loamy soils cause sediment concentrations and sediment loads which are above average for the State. During periods of moderate to low streamflow, the concentration of suspended sediment ranges from 1 to 25 ppm (parts per million). After heavy rainfall, sediment concentration increases rapidly as water discharge rises, and occasionally exceeds 1,000 ppm before decreasing again. The concentration may reach a maximum and decrease before the discharge peak is reached. A major part of the annual sediment load can be carried during a short period of time because of the great increase in both water discharge and sediment concentration during floods. The lower Coastal Plain differs from the mountainous areas in several respects. The topography is gently rolling to almost level, precipitation and runoff are less than average for the State, and topsoils generally consist of hard and loamy sand. Concentration of suspended sediment in streamflow commonly ranges from 1 to 20 ppm during periods of low to moderate discharge and increases to 15 to 60 ppm at high discharge. Because of the small increase in concentration with increasing stream discharge, the sediment load varies approximately in proportion to the discharge. The sediment characteristics of streams in the Piedmont, the Valley and Ridge area. and the upper Coastal Plain are intermediate .between those of the Blue Ridge area and the lower Coastal Plain. Comparison of suspended load with estimated bed load in a few Georgia streams suggests th.at bed load is less than 20 percent of the suspended load for most streams. Factors which appear to be most important in causing variation in sediment yield in Georgia are topographic relief, soil texture, and location of dams. Variations in other factors such as precipitation, runoff, covering vegetation, drainage area, and channel types serve to modify the effects of the major factors. In general, Georgia stream water is of good quality. Water of some streams is of exceptionally fine quality and contains less than 30 ppm combined dissolved and suspended solids during at least 90 percent of the time. Knowledge of the nature and cause of variation in water quality will permit the most effective use of Georgia streams.

Georgia↗
USGS1963

Geology and ground-water conditions in the southern part of the Camp Ripley Military Reservation, Morrison County, Minnesota

The southern part of the Camp Ripley Military Reservation, in central Minnesota, includes an area of about 20 square miles. This investigation was conducted to assist the U.S. National Guard Bureau in locating adequate water supplies for expansion and standby needs. Bedrock in the area consists of Precambrian phyllite which is equivalent to the Virginia slate. The area is covered largely by Pleistocene deposits in the form of moraines, ice-contact features, outwash plains, and the valley train of the Mississippi River. Almost all the surface deposits consist of outwash-plain and valley-train sediments that are generally permeable. Test drilling and an electrical-resistivity survey indicate that the post area, in the southeast part of the reservation, is underlain by about 50 to 115 feet of glacial drift. The west side of the post area is underlain by a bedrock valley filled in part by permeable glaciofluvial deposits in which there is a narrow, highly permeable channel deposit of sand and gravel. Aquifers of this type are probably the most important source of ground water in the area, although substantial quantities of water also may be obtained from other types of glacial aquifers. Properly constructed and developed wells tapping the channel deposits should yield 2,000 to 3,000 gallons per minute, or more. Recharge to the aquifers in the reservation is derived from the downward percolation of local precipitation. Most recharge occurs during the spring breakup when accumulated winter snows melt and during the warmer months when the heaviest rains occur. Sufficient water is stored in sands and gravels in the area to support substantial water-supply developments for several years, even without normal recharge. The water is harder than is desirable for domestic uses, and it is relatively highly colored, probably owing to the presence of iron. Otherwise, the water is satisfactory for most domestic purposes as it contains only about 250 parts per million of dissolved solids.

Minnesota↗
USGS1964

Ground-water resources of the lower Mesilla Valley, Texas and New Mexico

The lower Mesilla Valley extends southward from the vicinity of Anthony, Tex., to the gorge of the Rio Grande north of El Paso and westward from the Franklin Mountains to the east edge of La Mesa. The increase in the use of ground water for the public water supply of El Paso and for supplemental irrigation, when the surface-water allotments were inadequate, emphasized the need for an investigation of the ground-water resources of the lower Mesilla Valley.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1963

Sediment characteristics of small streams in southern Wisconsin, 1954-59

The results of investigations of the sediment and water discharge characteristics of Black Earth Creek, Mount Vernon Creek, and Yellowstone River from 1954 to 1959 and Dell Creek for 1958 and 1959 indicate large differences in annual runoff and sediment yields. The suspended-sediment discharge of Black Earth Creek averaged 3,260 tons per year or 71 tons per square mile : the annual yields ranged from 27 to 102 tons per square mile. The annual suspended-sediment yield of Mount Vernon Creek ranged from 48 to 171 tons per square mile and averaged 96 tons per square mile. The maximum daily discharge was 1,120 tons on April 1, 1960, during a storm which produced 67 percent of the suspended load for that water year and exceeded the discharge for the preceding 3 years. The sediment discharge of the Yellowstone River averaged 6,870 tons per year or 236 tons per square riffle. The maximum daily sediment discharge, 3,750 tons on April 1, 1959, occurred during a 14-day period of high flow during which the sediment discharge was 15,480 tons. In 1958 and 1959, Dell Creek had suspended-sediment yields of 4.7 and 26 tons per square mile of drainage area. The suspended sediment transported by Black Earth and Mount Vernon Creeks is about two-thirds clay and one-third silt. For Yellowstone River the particle-size distribution of the suspended sediment ranged from three-fourths clay and one-fourth silt during periods of low sediment discharge to one-third clay and two-thirds silt during high sediment discharges. For Dell Creek nearly all of the suspended sediment is clay, but the bed load is sand. The mean sediment concentration of storm runoff averaged two to three times more in the summer than in the winter. No significant changes with time occurred in the relation between storm runoff and sediment yield.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1963

Hydrology of upper Black Earth Creek basin, Wisconsin, with a section on surface water

The upper Black Earth Creek drainage basin has an area of 46 square miles and is in Dane County in south-central Wisconsin. The oldest rock exposed in the valley walls is the sandstone of Late Cambrian age. Dolomite of the Prairie du Chien Group of Ordovician age overlies the sandstone and forms the. resistant cap on the hills. The St. Peter Sandstone, Platteville and Decorah Formations, and Galena Dolomite, all Ordovician in age, form a narrow belt along the southern boundary of the area. Outwash and alluvium of Pleistocene and Recent age fill the valleys. The eastern half of the area was glaciated and is covered with till. The sandstone of Late Cambrian age and the sand and gravel of the outwash deposits are hydraulically connected. Ground water occurs under unconfined (water-table) conditions in the western unglaciated part of the basin and under artesian conditions beneath the till locally in the eastern part. The source of most of the ground water is direct infiltration of precipitation; however, some ground water enters the area as underflow from the south. About 7 inches of the 30 inches of average annual precipitation recharges the ground-water reservoir. The ground water generally moves toward Black Earth Creek where it is discharged. Some ground water moves out of the basin as underflow beneath the valley of Black Earth Creek, and some is discharged by evapotranspiration or is withdrawn by pumping from wells. Water levels in shallow nonartesian wells respond rapidly to precipitation. The effect of precipitation on water levels in artesian wells is slower and more subdued. Water levels are generally highest in spring and lowest in fall and winter. The flow of upper Black Earth Creek is derived mostly from ground-water discharge, except during short periods of and immediately after precipitation when most of the flow is derived from surface runoff. The runoff from upper Black Earth Creek basin decreased from an average of 8.72 inches per square mile of drainage area in 1955 to 5.55 inches in 1958; the decrease reflects the generally decreasing precipitation and declining water levels in the basin during that period. On July 10, 1958, the discharge from the basin was 0.367 cubic feet per second per square mile, and the greatest discharge was 0.84 cubic feet per second per square mile from the southwest subbasin. The ground water has an average temperature of about 50°F. It is a calcium magnesium bicarbonate type water and is very hard.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1964

Natural sources of salinity in the Brazos River, Texas with particular reference to the Croton and salt Croton Creek basins

The average daily load of the Brazos River at Possum Kingdom Reservoir is about 2,800 tons of dissolved solids, of which 1,000 tons is chloride. More than 85 percent of the chloride load is contributed by the Salt Fork Brazos River, and more than 50 percent of the chloride load of the Brazos River originates from salt springs and seeps in Croton and Salt Crotdn Creeks, which are tributaries of Salt Fork Brazos River. The rest of the chloride is contributed from many small sources. The average daily chloride load of Croton Creek is 70 tons, much of which is carried during periods of flood runoff. The average daily chloride load of Salt Croton Creek is about 480 tons. Of this total, 330 tons is contributed by the base flow, which ranges from 0.5 to 2 cubic feet per second. The principal areas of salt springs and seeps in the Croton Creek basin are Hot Springs and Short Croton Salt Flats in northeastern Kent County. In the Salt Croton Creek basin, saline water is discharged in Dove Creek Salt Flat, Dove Creek near Dove Creek Salt Flat, and three small salt flats on Haystack Creek, all in southwestern King County and northwestern Stonewall County. Salt springs and seeps discharge from the rocks of the Whitehorse Group undifferentiated in the Croton Creek basin, and from the upper part of the Dog Creek Shale of the Pease River Group in the Salt Croton Creek basin. Both groups are of Permian age. The water that is discharged by springs and seeps in the Croton Creek basin is derived from the infiltration of precipitation and seepage from streams in the Duck Creek basin. The source of the water that discharges in the Salt Croton basin is not known. The salt load contributed to the Brazos River by the springs and seeps can be reduced, although the volume of salt water for disposal probably cannot be reduced or eliminated. Collecting and disposing of the base flow of Salt Croton Creek would reduce the salt load of the Brazos River by 30 percent; disposal of the total flow of Salt Croton Creek would reduce the salt load by 45 percent. The salt water may be disposed of by impounding it in reservoirs for evaporation or by injecting it underground through oil wells, oil tests, or wells drilled for saltwater disposal. Sediments in which the salt water possibly could be injected underlie the. Dove Creek Salt Flats at depths of less than 7,000 feet.

Texas↗