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USGS2001

Ground-Water Hydrology of the Upper Deschutes Basin, Oregon

The upper Deschutes Basin is among the fastest growing regions in Oregon. The rapid population growth has been accompanied by increased demand for water. Surface streams, however, have been administratively closed to additional appropriation for many years, and surface water is not generally available to support new development. Consequently, ground water is being relied upon to satisfy the growth in water demand. Oregon water law requires that the potential effects of ground-water development on streamflow be evaluated when considering applications for new ground-water rights. Prior to this study, hydrologic understanding has been insufficient to quantitatively evaluate the connection between ground water and streamflow, and the behavior of the regional ground-water flow system in general. This report describes the results of a hydrologic investigation undertaken to provide that understanding. The investigation encompasses about 4,500 square miles of the upper Deschutes River drainage basin.A large proportion of the precipitation in the upper Deschutes Basin falls in the Cascade Range, making it the principal ground-water recharge area for the basin. Water-balance calculations indicate that the average annual rate of ground- water recharge from precipitation is about 3,500 ft3/s (cubic feet per second). Water-budget calculations indicate that in addition to recharge from precipitation, water enters the ground-water system through interbasin flow. Approximately 800 ft3/s flows into the Metolius River drainage from the west and about 50 ft3/s flows into the southeastern part of the study area from the Fort Rock Basin. East of the Cascade Range, there is little or no ground-water recharge from precipitation, but leaking irrigation canals are a significant source of artificial recharge north of Bend. The average annual rate of canal leakage during 1994 was estimated to be about 490 ft3/s. Ground water flows from the Cascade Range through permeable volcanic rocks eastward out into the basin and then generally northward. About one-half the ground water flowing from the Cascade Range discharges to spring-fed streams along the margins of the range, including the upper Metolius River and its tributaries. The remaining ground water flows through the subsurface, primarily through rocks of the Deschutes Formation, and eventually discharges to streams near the confluence of the Deschutes, Crooked, and Metolius Rivers. Substantial ground-water discharge occurs along the lower 2 miles of Squaw Creek, the Deschutes River between Lower Bridge and Pelton Dam, the lower Crooked River between Osborne Canyon and the mouth, and in Lake Billy Chinook (a reservoir that inundates the confluence of the Deschutes, Crooked, and Metolius Rivers).The large amount of ground-water discharge in the confluence area is primarily caused by geologic factors. North (downstream) of the confluence area, the upper Deschutes Basin is transected by a broad region of low-permeability rock of the John Day Formation. The Deschutes River flows north across the low-permeability region, but the permeable Deschutes Formation, through which most of the regional ground water flows, ends against this rampart of low-permeability rock. The northward-flowing ground water discharges to the streams in this area because the permeable strata through which it flows terminate, forcing the water to discharge to the surface. Virtually all of the regional ground water in the upper Deschutes Basin discharges to surface streams south of the area where the Deschutes River enters this low-permeability terrane, at roughly the location of Pelton Dam.The effects of ground-water withdrawal on streamflow cannot presently be measured because of measurement error and the large amount of natural variability in ground-water discharge. The summer streamflow near Madras, which is made up largely of ground-water discharge, is approximately 4,000 ft3/s. Estimated consumptive ground-water use in the basin i

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1976

Summary of some current and possible future environmental problems related to geology and hydrology at Memphis, Tennessee

Memphis, Tennessee, like many other cities in the Nation, has some problems related to local geology and hydrology. The city is in the Coastal Plain physiographic province and is underlain at shallow depths by sand, clay, silt, gravel, and lignite. These post-Midway strata (Wilcox and younger) make up geologic units belonging to the uppermost Paleocene, Eocene, and Pliocene (?) Series of the Tertiary System and to the Pleistocene and Holocene Series of the Quaternary System. Environmental problems of immediate or future concern are associated with six general topics: (1) aggregate resources, (2) foundation materials, (3) earthquake hazards, (4) flood hazards, (5) water resources, and (6) solid waste disposal. Consideration of these topics in one report should provide an overall insight into the close interrelation of the problems and the need for coordinated studies of the geology and hydrology at Memphis.

Tennessee↗

USGS1977

Hydrologic considerations associated with dredging spring ponds in Wisconsin

Spring ponds (small spring-fed bodies of water) are natural features of some glaciated areas and have a continuous flow of ground water entering through their bottoms and exiting through surface outlets. Dredging has been used to restore ponds that have been filled in part or totally by sediment. The purpose of the study was to determine the hydrology of selected spring ponds and the effect that dredging has had on the ponds. Three ponds, Maxwell, Sunshine, and Krause Ponds, in northeastern Wisconsin were studied. Sediments were dredged from Sunshine and Krause Ponds. Maxwell Pond, which was not dredged, was a hydrologic control to aid in distinguishing changes produced by dredging from those that were natural. Ground water from glacial deposits is the source of most of the water flowing in spring ponds and streams in the study area. Average annual ground-water recharge in the study area is about 13 inches. Ground-water discharge contributed 97 percent of the total flow in the Red River, a typical stream in the study area, during the 1973 water year. Ground water and surface water in the study area are of a calcium magnesium bicarbonate type. Dissolved-solids concentration ranges from 170 to 250 milligrams per liter. Temperature of ground water discharging into the spring ponds in the study ranged from 6 to 7 Celsius.

Wisconsin↗

USGS1977

Hydrology of the Creeping Swamp Watershed, North Carolina with reference to potential effects of stream channelization

Hydrologic data were collected for four years at six sites in the Creeping Swamp watershed in eastern North Carolina in a preliminary effort to study the effects of stream channelization on the hydrology of a small watershed. A water-budget evaluation for pre-channelized conditions showed that runoff accounts for about 17 percent of the total rainfall, base runoff about 20 percent, ground-water outflow about 2 percent, and evapotranspiration about 61 percent. Channelization would have caused the greatest decline in ground-water levels nearest the stream, with the decline diminishing with increased distance from the stream. Channelization would also have resulted in a decrease in overland runoff and an increase in the amount of water reaching Creeping Swamp through the ground-water system, although the total volume of runoff would not change significantly. The water-quality characteristics of Creeping Swamp indicate that the stream is relatively free of pollution, although it is likely that channelization would increase (1) suspended-sediment loads, (2) stream temperatures, and (3) concentrations of dissolved solids, especially during low flows.

North Carolina↗

USGS1978

Impact of potential phosphate mining on the hydrology of Osceola National Forest, Florida

Potentially exploitable phosphate deposits underlie part of Osceola National Forest, Fla. Hydrologic conditions in the forest are comparable with those in nearby Hamilton County, where phosphate mining and processing have been ongoing since 1965. Given similarity of operations, hydroloigc effects of mining in the forest are predicted. Flow of stream receiving phosphate industry effluent would increase somewhat during mining, but stream quality would not be greatly affected. Local changes in the configuration of the water table and the quality of water in the surficial aquifer will occur. Lowering of the potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer because of proposed pumpage would be less than five feet at nearby communities. Flordian aquifer water quality would be appreciably changed only if industrial effluent were discharged into streams which recharge the Flordian through sinkholes. The most significant hydrologic effects would occur at the time of active mining: long-term effects would be less significant.

Florida↗

USGS1983

Potential effects of surface coal mining on the hydrology of the Snider Creek area, Rosebud and Ashland coal fields, southeastern Montana

The Snider Creek area of the Rosebud and Ashland coal fields contains strippable reserves of Federal coal that have been identified for potential lease sale. A hydrologic study has been conducted in the potential lease area to describe the existing hydrologic systems and to assess potential impacts of surface coal mining on local water resources. Hydrogeologic data collected from stock wells, observation wells, and drill holes indicate that shallow aquifers exist within the Tullock, Lebo Shale, and tongue River Members of the Fort Union Formation (Paleocene age) and within valley alluvium (Pleistocene and Holocene age). Most of the wells in the area are completed in the basal part of the Tongue River Member or in the upper part of the Lebo Shale Member and are used for watering of livestock. Small stock reservoirs are the primary source of surface water; Snider Creek and all other streams that originate in the area are ephemeral. The Terrett coal bed, the primary coal bed of the area, is located above the water table. Mining of the Terrett coal bed would destroy one stock well and several small reservoirs. Four other wells near the coal outcrop might be destroyed by mining. Alternative ground-water supplies are available to replace those lost by mining. Degradation of the quality of ground water, caused by the leaching of soluble salts from mine spoils, is not anticipated. (USGS)

Montana↗

USGS1983

Preliminary appraisal of the hydrology of the Stigler area, Haskell County, Oklahoma

Bed rock in the Stigler area of southeastern Oklahoma consists principally of shale, siltstone, and sandstone of the McAlester, Savanna, and Boggy Formations of Pennsylvanian age. These rocks have been folded to form the Stigler syncline on the north and the Antioch anticline on the south. An area of several square miles is underlain by terrace deposits, mostly sandy silt, as much as 25 feet thick. Alluvium along the streams is 5 to 10 feet thick and consists mainly of sandy silt. Neither the terrace deposits nor the alluvium are hydrologically significant. Water in the bedrock is under artesian conditions. Well depths range from 34 to 235 feet and average 95 feet. The water level in most wells is less than 30 feet below the land surface. Because the rocks have minimal permeability, well yields probably are less than 5 gallons per minute. Much of the area is provided with water by a rural water district. Based on specific-conductance measurements, dissolved-solids concentrations in ground water are estimated to range from 200 to 2,500 milligrams per liter. Nor relationship between variations in specific conductance and well depth, geographic distribution, or geologic formation is apparent. Streams in the area are ephemeral and extended periods of no flow can be expected. During much of the period of record, streamflow in Taloka Creek was maintained by water pumped from an active coal mine. Water upstream from the mine area had a mean dissolved-solids concentration of 72 milligrams per liter whereas water downstream from the mine area had a mean concentration of 1,323 milligrams per liter. At times, downstream concentrations of some toxic metals exceeded the standards for drinking water set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Samples of water collected from Taloka Creek since mining ceased did not have excessive concentrations of toxic metals. Maximum suspended-sediment discharge of Taloka Creek was about 1,660 tons per day. Silt-clay particles (diameters less than 0.062 millimeter) were the dominant grain size. Observed and measured effects of surface mining for coal on the hydrologic system include (1) creation of additional water storage in the surface mine pond, (2) disruption of drainage in an area of about 1 square mile, and (3) increased mineralization of water in Taloka Creek. Other possible effects include (4) changes in permeability and storage of water in mine spoil, (5) minor changes in streamflow and runoff characteristics, and (6) temporary increase in the sediment load of Taloka Creek.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1983

Potential effects of surface coal mining on the hydrology of the Bloomfield coal tract, Dawson County, eastern Montana

The Bloomfield coal tract in Dawson County, Montana, contains about 420 million tons of recoverable coal reserves within the Pust coal bed. About 136 million tons of coal within the tract is Federally owned, of which 98 million tons has been identified for potential lease sale. A hydrologic study has been conducted in the potential lease area to describe existing hydrologic systems and to assess potential impacts of surface coal mining on local water resources. Shallow ground-water resources in the tract are limited to sandstone and coal aquifers in the Tongue River Member of the Fort Union Formation (Paleocene age). These shallow aquifers have small values of hydraulic conductivity; yields to wells generally range from 1 to 10 gallons per minute. Water from shallow sandstone and coal aquifers is used primarily for livestock watering and domestic supply. Chemical analyses indicate that water from most shallow aquifers is dominated by calcium and magnesium cations and sulfate and bicarbonate anions. Surface-water resources in the tract consist primarily of small reservoirs used for livestock watering. All streams in the tract are ephemeral, making them unreliable as a source of livestock water. Mining of the Pust coal bed would cause certain impacts on local water resources. About 15 stock and domestic wells and 13 small stock reservoirs would be destroyed by mining. Shallow coal and sandstone aquifers would be permanently removed from parts of the tract. Leaching of soluble salts from mine spoils may cause a long-term degradation of the quality of water in shallow aquifers in or near the coal tract. Impacts on the local water resources could be mitigated by development of alternative ground-water supplies from deeper aquifers in the Fort Union and in the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek and Fox Hills Formations. Reservoirs destroyed by mining could be reconstructed during mine reclamation. (USGS)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1984

An assessment of cumulative impacts of coal mining on the hydrology in part of the Powder River structural basin, Wyoming: A progress report

The U.S. Geological Survey and the Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality are involved in a cooperative effort to assess the probable cumulative impacts of coal mining on the hydrology of a part of the Powder River Structural Basin in Wyoming. It was assumed that the principal impacts on the ground-water system due to mining will occur in the relatively shallow aquifers which can be grouped into three homogeneous aquifers, namely, the Wyodak coal, the overburden, and the under burden. Emphasis of this report is on the results of analysis of surface-water resources in the Caballo Creek drainage. A surface-water model of the Caballo Creek drainage was developed using the Hydrological Simulation Program-Fortran model to help assess the impacts of mining activities on streamflow. The Caballo Creek drainage was divided into 10 land segments and 6 stream reaches in the modeling process. Three simulation runs show little, if any, change in streamflow between pre- and post-mining conditions and very little change between pre-mining and during-mining conditions. The principal reason for the absence of change is the high infiltration rate used in the model for all three conditions.

Wyoming↗

USGS1984

Hydrologic conditions in the Chicod Creek basin, North Carolina, before and during channel modifications, 1975-81

Beginning in late 1978, stream channels throughout the 60-square mile Chicod Creek basin underwent extensive modification to increase drainage efficiency and reduce flooding potential. Drainage modifications in this Coastal Plain basin, consisting primarily of channel excavation and clearing of channel blockages, were completed in December 1981. The hydrologic condition of the basin before and during modification was determined from observed data. Observed data indicate hydrologic changes occurred in selected basin characteristics. For example, water levels in the surficial aquifer within 250 feet of Juniper Branch declined as much as 0.4 feet during modifications; at distances greater than 250 feet from the stream, ground-water levels did not change. Base flows increased, and suspended-sediment concentrations for high flows were several times greater than before channel modifications. Increases in selected chemical constituent concentrations in stream water during modifications were as follows: calcium, 12 percent; sodium, 18 percent; bicarbonate, 84 percent; and phosphorous, 80 percent. Significant changes were not found in either pesticide concentrations or coliform bacteria counts.

North Carolina↗

USGS1984

Potential effects of surface coal mining on the hydrology of the Circle West coal tracts, McCone County, eastern Montana

The Circle West coal tracts in McCone County, Montana, contain about 460 million tons of recoverable coal reserves. Estimates of coal reserves for the tract are based predominantly on the S coal bed, which averages about 16 ft in thickness. About 175 million tons, or 38%, of the recoverable coal is Federally owned and has been identified for potential lease sale. A hydrologic study has been conducted in the potential lease area to describe existing hydrologic systems and to assess potential effects of surface coal mining on local water resources. Geohydrologic data collected from wells and drill holes indicate that shallow aquifers exist in sandstone and coal beds of the Tongue River Member of the Fort Union Formation (Paleocene age). These shallow aquifers generally have small values of hydraulic conductivity (0.1 to 380 ft/day) and typically yield from 2 to 20 gal/min to stock and domestic wells. Where coal is extremely fractured or the thickness of saturated sandstone is large, some wells can yield in excess of 70 gal/min. Chemical analyses indicate that most shallow aquifers contain a sodium sulfate bicarbonate type water. Surface water resources of the area consist of intermittent streamflow in parts of the Nelson and Timber Creek basins plus a large network of reservoirs. The reservoirs provide a large part of the water supply for area livestock and irrigation. Water quality data for Nelson and Timber Creeks indicate that the water generally is a sodium sulfate type and has a large concentration (181 to 6,960 mg/L) of dissolved solids. Mining of the S coal bed in the Circle West coal tracts would permanently remove shallow coal and sandstone aquifers, resulting in the loss of shallow stock wells. Mining would destroy livestock reservoirs, alter runoff characteristics of Nelson Creek, and temporarily lower water levels in shallow aquifers near the mine. Leaching of soluble constituents from mine spoils may cause a long-term degradation of the quality of water in shallow aquifers in and near the coal tracts. Some of the effects on local water supplies could be mitigated by development of alternative water resources in deeper aquifers such as the Tullock aquifer of Paleocene age and the Fox Hills-lower Hell Creek aquifer of Late Cretaceous age. (Author 's abstract)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1985

Hydrology of Fritchie Marsh, coastal Louisiana

Fritchie Marsh, near Slidell, Louisiana, is being considered as a disposal site for sewage effluent. A two-dimensional, finite element, surface water modeling systems was used to solve the shallow water equations for flow. Factors affecting flow patterns are channel locations, inlets, outlets, islands, marsh vegetation, marsh geometry, stage of the West Pearl River, flooding over the lower Pearl River basin, gravity tides, wind-induced currents, and sewage discharge to the marsh. Four steady-state simulations were performed for two hydrologic events at two rates of sewage discharge. The events, near tide with no wind or rain and neap tide with a tide differential across the marsh, were selected as worst-case events for sewage effluent dispersion and were assumed as steady state events. Because inflows and outflows to the marsh are tidally affected, steady state simulations cannot fully define the hydraulic characteristics of the marsh for all hydrologic events. Model results and field data indicate that, during near tide with little or no rain, large parts of the marsh are stagnant; and sewage effluent, at existing and projected flows, has minimal effect on marsh flows. (USGS)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1989

Surface-water quality in the West Branch Susquehanna River basin, Pennsylvania: An appraisal of areal and temporal variability from 1962 to 1982 in hydrologic accounting unit 020502

The West Branch Susquehanna River basin has a drainage area of 6,955 square miles in north-central Pennsylvania and comprises Hydrologic Accounting Unit 020502. A National Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN) waterquality data collection site, maintained by the U.S. Geological Survey, is located on the river near its mouth at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. Water-quality data are collected at numerous other sites throughout the basin by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, Bureau of Water Quality Management. Data collected from the NASQAN site and the sites operated by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources from 1962 to 1982 were used to evaluate water-quality variability in the basin. The following objectives were addressed: (1) describe the surface-water quality upstream of the NASQAN site on an areal and temporal basis; (2) relate the water-quality variability, on both an areal and temporal basis, to general basin characteristics; and (3) assess the ability of the water-quality data collected at the NASQAN site to represent, on both an areal and temporal basis the water quality for Hydrologic Accounting Unit 020502 upstream from the site. Areally, the water quality varies considerably throughout the basin. Generally, the river was found to have moderately good water quality in the upper reaches, poor water quality in its middle reach, and good water quality near the mouth. Two tributaries, Moshannon Creek (median pH 3.9) and Bald Eagle Creek (median pH 7.8), had the most pronounced effect on the water quality of the river. Temporal trends were found in the concentrations of several of the constituents at most of the stations. Of the constituents analyzed, those which exhibited increasing or decreasing trends most frequently were pH, alkalinity, dissolved sulfate, total ammonia, and total nitrite plus nitrate. The largest trends were in the concentrations of total-recoverable aluminum, manganese, and zinc. Causes of areal variation were attributed to land use and geologic variations throughout the basin. Trends which indicated an improvement in water qualijty are believed to be caused by improvements in the treatment of acid mine drainage and wastewater. Trends which indicated degradation of water quality were generally found in areas where these types of treatment are not yet effective. The NASQAN site at Lewisburg was shown not to represent the water quality of the entire basin, either areally or temporally. It does, however, represent the water quality of the West Branch Susquehanna River at its mouth.

Pennsylvania↗

USGS1987

Hydrologic and geochemical monitoring in Long Valley Caldera, Mono County, California, 1985

Hydrologic and geochemical monitoring, to detect changes caused by magmatic and tectonic processes in the Long Valley caldera has continued through 1985. The monitoring included the collection of the following types of data: chemical and isotopic composition of water and gases from springs, wells, and steam vents; temperatures in wells, springs, and steam vents; flow rates of springs and streams; water levels in wells; and barometric pressure and precipitation at several sites. In addition, reservoir temperatures for the geothermal system were estimated from computations based on chemical geothermometers applied to fluid samples from wells and springs. Estimates of thermal water discharged from springs were made on the basis of boron and chloride fluxes in surface waters for selected sites in the Casa Diablo area and along the Mammoth-Hot Creek drainage. These data are presented in tables and graphs. The Long Valley area was relatively quiescent throughout 1985 in terms of geodetic changes and seismic activity. As a consequence , the hydrologic system varied mainly in response to seasonal influences of temperature, atmospheric pressure, and precipitation. However, spring flows near Casa Diablo were influenced by pumping at the geothermal production well field nearby. (Author 's abstract)

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS1989

Sediment transport and accretion and the hydrologic environment of Grove Creek near Kenansville, North Carolina

The Grove Creek basin includes an area of about 42 square miles in Duplin County, southeastern North Carolina. This report evaluates sediment transport and sediment-accretion rates in the lowermost 9-mile reach of Grove Creek by using hydrologic, dendrologic, and radioisotopic data collected at seven sites along the study reach. Hydrologic data indicate two discharge frequencies. In the swampiest reaches downstream of site 5, inundation occurs 35 percent of the time; above this site, inundation occurs about 15 percent of the time. For the period from October 1982 through September 1987, overbank flows at site 4 occurred 82 times and lasted a total of 632 days with a maximum duration of 3 months. Distribution of tree species indicates that water-tolerant bald cypress have developed along the lowermost 7 miles of Grove Creek where the flood plain is inundated 35 percent of the time. These swampy conditions have been in existence across limited parts of the flood plain for the last 80 to 150 years. In contrast, the upstream sites have been comparatively dry for the same period. The sediment that is transported in Grove Creek is predominately silt and clay. Measured suspended-sediment concentrations at discharges less than 100 cubic foot per second are less than 15 milligrams per liter; concentrations at higher discharges did not exceed 67 milligrams per liter. Calculated suspended-sediment loads ranged from 75 to 444 tons per year at the various data-collection sites on Grove Creek. Sediment-accretion rates estimated from dendrologic data ranged from 0.03 foot per year to 0.06 foot per year. The highest accretion rates occur in the downstream swampy reaches and are due to channel braiding, low channel gradients and flow velocities, and high frequency and duration percentages of overbank flow, which result in the deposition of clay and silt over wide areas of the flood plain. Sediment-accretion rates along Grove Creek were also estimated by radioisotope methods. Sediment cores from the flood plain showed detectable levels of cesium-137, lead-210, and radium-226. Cesium-137 was not present in the sediment cores below a depth of 10 inches; this indicates a maximum accretion rate of about 0.024 foot per year for the period 1952-87. Lead-210 and radium-226 data from these same sediment cores indicate an average accretion rate of 0.026 foot per year to a depth of about 2 feet. The maximum age of the flood-plain sediment at the 2-foot level is about 80 years. The atmosphere was confirmed as the source of excess lead-210 in flood-plain sediments by nearly matching calculated values of the lead-210 flux at each site with the measured value for atmospheric deposition.

North Carolina↗

USGS1993

Hydrology and water quality of Powers Lake, southeastern Wisconsin

This report describes the hydrology and water quality of Powers Lake, a recreational lake in a densely populated area of southeastern Wisconsin, from October 16, 1986 - October 15, 1987. The hydrologic budget for the study period showed that direct precipitation on the lake and ground water were dominant sources of water entering the lake (37 and 36 percent, respectively) and that streamflow dominated the outflow. Surface runoff contributed 27 percent of the inflow-23 percent from Powers Lake inlet and 4 percent from shoreline drainage. Streamflow through Powers Lake outlet accounted for 62 percent of the outflow and evaporation accounted for 38 percent. Based on the streamflow from Powers Lake outlet, the lake's hydraulic residence time was 3.8 years. During the study period, precipitation was 27.16 inches or 4.08 inches below long-term (1951-80) average. The data were adjusted or normalized to represent an average year of precipitation and runoff to help evaluate the water quality of the lake for an average year. For an average year, precipitation dominated inflow (42 percent), followed by ground water (32 percent), Powers Lake inlet (21 percent), and shoreline drainage (5 percent). Streamflow through Powers Lake outlet accounted for 61 percent of an average year's outflow budget and the remaining 39 percent was evaporation. Based on an average year's streamflow from Powers Lake outlet, the lake's hydraulic residence time was 4.2 years. Phosphorus budgets were prepared for the study period and for an estimated normal year. The phosphorus budget for the study period showed that, of the total inputs (516 pounds), surface runoff contributed the largest amount; shoreline drainage contributed 44 percent, and Powers Lake inlet contributed 36 percent. Direct precipitation contributed 11 percent; ground water, 2 percent; and septic systems, 7 percent. Of the total outputs, 83 pounds (16 percent) was lost from the lake via the outlet; 433 pounds (84 percent) was lost to the sediments as the phosphorus that was attached to particles settled to the lake bottom. An estimated phosphorus budget for a normal year showed that of the total inputs (744 pounds), surface runoff contributed the largest amount; Powers Lake inlet contributed 45 percent and shoreline drainage contributed 35 percent. Precipitation contributed 9 percent; ground water, 1 percent; and septic systems, 10 percent. The health of the lake was evaluated using Carlson's Trophic State Index and Vollenweider's model. Carlson's Trophic State Index showed that Powers Lake was moderately enriched and in the mesotrophic range. Comparison of guidelines from Vollenweider's model showed that the total phosphorus input for the study period and for an estimated average year would not cause eutrophic conditions.

Wisconsin↗

USGS1993

Hydrology and water quality of Wind Lake in southeastern Wisconsin

The hydrology and water quality of Wind Lake-a recreational lake in a densely populated area of southeastern Wisconsin was studied from October 1, 1987 through September 30,1989. A drought in 1988 affected the hydrologic budget of Wind Lake in water years 1988-89. Precipitation was 5.9 inches less than normal in water year 1988 but was 2.3 inches greater than normal in water year 1989. Streamflows were near normal in water year 1988 and 25 percent less than normal in water year 1989 as indicated by data from a nearby streamflow-gaging station. Surface runoff was the dominant source of water to the lake in water year 1988 and 75 percent of the inflow was from Big Muskego Lake. The water level in Big Muskego Lake was 1.1 feet below the dam crest at the start of the 1989 water year because of the 1988 drought. About 2,510 acre-feet of water had to fill Big Muskego Lake before water could discharge to Wind Lake. In water year 1989, surface runoff was still the dominant source of water to the lake, but Big Muskego Lake only contributed 52 percent of the water inflow. Streamflow dominated the outflow budget for both years. In water year 1988, 88 percent of the outflow budget left by way of Wind Lake outlet and 12 percent evaporated from the lake surface. In water year 1989, 81 percent of the outflow budget left by way of Wind Lake outlet and 19 percent evaporated from the lake surface. On the basis of outflow from Wind Lake for water year 1988, the hydraulic residence time was 0.46 year; in water year 1989 it was 1.05 years. The total phosphorus input to Wind Lake from external sources was the same for both years, 3,160 pounds. The largest percentage of the phosphorus load came from Big Muskego Lake-- 70 percent in water year 1988 and 65 percent in water year 1989. Analysis of data by use of Vollenweider's model indicates that the phosphorus loadings for each year would cause eutrophic conditions. Data from a nearby gaging station indicate that phosphorus loading to Wind Lake was less than normal. Phosphorus retention in the lake is small and averages 14 percent of the incoming load for both years. Oxygen depletion occurs in the bottom waters during winter and summer months. A maximum anoxic zone was reached on July 18, 1988, when depths greater than 15 feet (about 21 percent of the lake bottom area) were anoxic. Total phosphorus concentrations at the lake surface for both years ranged from 11 to 78 micrograms per liter. Mean total phosphorus concentrations in June, July, and August that had averaged 49 micrograms per liter in 1985 through 1987 declined to 20 micrograms per liter in water year 1988 and 22 micrograms per liter in water year 1989. This reduction was related to the drought and reduced phosphorus loadings. Phosphorus concentrations 1.5 feet above the lake bottom increase during summer anoxic periods. The phosphorus concentration increased at a rate of 5.2 and 4.8 micrograms per liter per day for total and dissolved orthophosphate phosphorus. A maximum concentration of 760 micrograms per liter of total phosphorus and 650 micrograms per liter of dissolved orthophosphate phosphorus occurred on September 21, 1988, just before autumn turnover. Internal loading of phosphorus for the period October 15, 1987 through October 14, 1988, was estimated to be 2,890 pounds. This represents 48 percent of the combined internal and external total-phosphorus input of 5,960 pounds. Algal populations in water year 1988 ranged from 28,200 to 1,610,000 cells per milliliter. A total of 143 species were identified. Blue-green algae dominated the algal population and ranged from 56 percent (February 16, 1988) to 99 percent (five other sampling dates). Aphanocapsa delicatissima caused the largest algal bloom, which reached a maximum concentration of 934,000 cells per milliliter (September 7, 1988). Zooplankton populations in water year 1988 ranged from 52.5 to 686 organisms per liter. Eighteen species were identified. The cladoceran, Daphnia, dominated 12 of the 18 samples.

Wisconsin↗

USGS1994

Hydrology and geochemistry of a surface coal mine in northwestern Colorado

The hydrology and geochemistry of a reclaimed coal mine in northwestern Colorado were monitored during water years 1988 and 1989. Some data also were collected in water years 1987 and 1990. This report describes (1) the sources of hydrologic recharge to and discharge from reclaimed spoil, (2) the relative contributions of recharge to the reclaimed spoil aquifer from identified source waters and the rate of water movement from those sources to the reclaimed spoil, and (3) the geochemical reactions that control water quality in reclaimed spoil. The study area was at a dip-slope coal mine encompassing about 7 square miles with land slopes of varying aspect. The area was instrumented and monitored at five sites; two sites had unmined and reclaimed- spoil areas adjacent to each other and three sites were unmined. The mined areas had been reclaimed. Instrumentation at the study sites included 1 climate station, 3 rain gages, 19 soil-water access tubes, 2 lysimeters, 18 wells completed in bedrock, 7 wells completed in reclaimed spoil, and 2 surface- water gaging stations. The results of the study indicate that the reclaimed spoil is recharged from surface recharge and underburden aquifers. Discharge, as measured by lysimeters, was about 3 inches per year and occurred during and after snowmelt. Hydraulic-head measurements indicated a potential for ground-water movement from deeper to shallower aquifers. Water levels rose in the reclaimed-spoil aquifer and spring discharge at the toe of the spoil slopes increased rapidly in response to snowmelt. Water chemistry, stable isotopes, geochemical models, and mass-balance calculations indicate that surface recharge and the underburden aquifers each contribute about 50 percent of the water to the reclaimed-spoil aquifers. Geochemical information indicates that pyrite oxidation and dissolution of carbonate and efflorescent sulfate minerals control the water chemistry of the reclaimed-spoil aquifer.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗