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USGS1978

Tin and related elements in sediments and beach sands from Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey

Sixty samples of sediments from stream beds, outwash plains, and beaches were collected in Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey by Fred L. Klinger, U.S. Bureau of Mines, as part of the field work undertaken by the National Geographic-Smithsonian Pyrotechnological Expedition of 1968. Facilities for the analysis of the samples for tin and other metals were not immediately available, but in 1973 arrangements were made for analyses to be made on a time-permitting basis in the U.S. Geological Survey. The original purpose in collecting the samples was to determine whether tin was present in amounts indicative of sources for tin ores used in antiquity for the manufacture of bronze. The results of the analyses not only permitted an evaluation of the potential for tin in the localities sampled, but also afforded chemical and mineralogical data that were interpretable in the context of regional potential for other elements of current industrial use. These include gold, base metals, ferro-alloy metals, beryllium, rare earths, and barium. The original 60 samples of sand were sieved to make three size fraction (>0.707 mm, <O.707->O.177 mm, and <0.177 mm) for spectrographic and chemical analysis. Splits of these fractions were used for replicate analyses to permit evaluation of the precision of the analytical procedures. Further splitting of the <0.707->0.177 mm sand gave fractions from each sample that were separated in bromoform. Concentrates from the heavy-liquid separations were divided magnetically into six parts from most magnetic to least magnetic. These concentrates were analyzed spectrographically. The precision of the spectrographic analyses is well within the limits of precision expected from semiquantitative procedures. Such precision allows semiquantitative spectrographic procedures to be used with confidence as a valuable tool for reconnaissance investigations in which multi-element analyses are necessary. The analyses of the various fractions of sediments and sediment concentrates indicate the sample media in which an element was most likely to occur. Tin exhibited no preferential concentration into any particular medium. However, many elements with which tin is associated, and other elements of industrial use, do concentrate into one or more of the sample media. This indication of a preferred medium permits interpretation of the analyses as to the best sample medium for a particular element in the environment of western Asia. Cassiterite and/or tin were detected in many samples from Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey, but in most of the samples the tin was present in normal crustal abundance. Sixteen samples, including seven from Afghanistan, eight from Iran, and one from Turkey contain unusually large amounts of tin. The most notable areas of anomalous tin are near Mirzaka, Qala-i-Asad, and Shah Agha in Afghanistan; near Meshed, Shir Kuh, Natanz, Nodus, and Talmesi in Iran; and on the shore of the Balck Sea just west of Trabzon in Turkey. Even in these localities the tin appears to be a minor element associated with other ores. The most common association of tin is with copper at known mineralized areas. This relation may have historical significance in the context of the development of bronze. The results of the analyses provided geochemical data on the distribution of other elements of industrial use and clearly identified nine of the ten known mineral deposits represented by the samples. The known metallization at the reported deposits may be only a part of more complex groups of metals. In Afghanistan an array of anomalous elements at the known gold placers around Mirzaka and along the Anguri River signals the presence of complex ore deposits. These elements are silver, arsenic, gold, bismuth, cadmium, copper, mercury, indium, molybdenum, lead, antimony, tin, thallium, tungsten, and zinc. They may indicate a Carlin-type gold deposit in which the wall-rocks are enriched in micron-sized particles of gold. Other localities in Afghanistan signalled by the results of the analyses to be anomalous and to merit further geochemical exploration are: (1) a reach of the Panjshir River for beryllium, lead, zinc, chromium and nickel; (2) the area near Bamian for beryllium; (3) the Siakhak village area for gold and copper; (4) around Qala-i-Asad and Shah Agha for lead, zinc, gold, and tungsten. Some attention to the distribution of monazite around Siakhak, Shahjui, Qala-i-Asad, and Shah Agha is justified to determine if this ore mineral for the rare earths and thorium is enriched over its normally expectable trace as an accessory mineral in granitic rocks, pelitic schists, and gneisses. In Iran, the pluton of granodiorite porphyry near Sar Cheshmeh, an area where a huge porphyry copper deposit was being investigated by the Geological Survey of Iran when the present samples were collected in 1968, shows as a strong geochemical anomaly for copper and molybdenum. The granitic area near Meshed is geochemically enriched persistently in beryllium, tin, and barium, and locally in gold, lanthanum, niobium, yttrium, and other elements. This area deserves a thorough regional geochemical survey for beryl and nonberyl sources of beryllium, for fluorite, and for the ores of niobium, tin, barium, the rare earths, and thorium. Other localities in Iran that merit geochemical exploration on the basis of these data are: ;1) the areas between Tabas and Deyhuk, east of Naiband, and south of Naiband for barium and zinc; (2) a locality about midway between Kerman and Sirdjan for barium, lanthanum, strontium, and zinc; (4) the Meskani copper mine area for mercury, lead, and nickel as well as copper; (5) the Talmesi copper mine area for such other elements as barium, cobalt, mercury, strontium, and zinc; (6) a small pluton of granodiorite north of Natanz for tungsten and base metals; (7) the vicinity of Zendjan for auriferous polymetallic sufide deposits; (8) gold in the gorge 15 km east of Miyaneh; and (9) the area near Nodus for gold, base metals, molybdenum, and niobium, and possibly uranium. The Harsit River basin in Turkey appears to be a suitable target for geochemical exploration for gold and low-temperature hydrothermal deposits of base metals, barium, and mercury.

Open-File Report↗
USGS2024

Constraining magma storage conditions of the Toba magmatic system: A plagioclase and amphibole perspective

Silicic magma reservoirs are responsible for producing the largest explosive eruptions in the geologic record. Petrologic and geochronological data provide evidence for these systems spending substantial periods of time (10 4 –10 5 yrs) within the upper crust prior to eruption; however, the long-term thermochemical evolution of these systems is not fully understood, as existing petrologic data make it challenging to quantify the time interval a magmatic system has spent at certain temperatures, or its “thermal history”. Here, we investigate the 74 ka Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT), one of the largest explosive eruptions in the geologic record, to better constrain the long-term thermal evolution of its magmatic system. We combine forward models of Sr diffusion in plagioclase and hornblende, mineral thermometry, and pre-existing trace-element evolution models to quantify the thermochemical evolution of the YTT magmatic system. We find that plagioclase crystals record decades to centuries of storage at temperatures 750 C, while hornblende records up to 6200 years at the same temperatures. Hornblende crystallizes at temperatures around 820 C and adjusting our diffusion modeling to this temperature results in no more than 900 years at initial crystallization conditions. Combined with previous trace-element modeling work, these results indicate that although there was chemical diversity for long durations in the YTT magma system sufficient to produce unique composition eruptive products, the entire system was experiencing a relatively similar thermal history that did not allow for large bodies of eruptible magma to be present for long periods ( 10 2 –10 3 years). Rather, we suggest that magmas within the YTT magmatic system were stored for long durations at thermal conditions where they were uneruptible and only remobilized within a few centuries prior to eruption.

Sumatra↗
USGS1971

Problems on the origin of ore deposits in the lower Ordovician formations of east Tennessee

Most recent workers in the East Tennessee zinc and barite districts are in general agreement that the host breccias were formed by solution-collapse processes in early Middle Ordovician time, probably in an ancient carbonate aquifer system of regional extent. There is little agreement, however, on the source and nature of the ore fluids from which the epigenetic minerals were formed. In this symposium Hanshaw and his colleagues have presented evidence in support of the concept that much secondary dolomite may have been formed by ground water. On the other hand, Roedder has shown that fluid inclusion studies indicate hot saline brines (75 degrees -150 degrees C) as the source fluids for the ore minerals, and he suggests that they may have been deeply circulating connate brines. Other investigators in the past have proposed a variety of source fluids, including juvenile waters, meteoric waters that have become enriched by the leaching of particular elements from the surrounding rock, and sea water. In the zinc deposits, sphalerite is accompanied locally by minor amounts of galena and pyrite, and occasionally, traces of chalcopyrite. Dolomite is the chief gangue mineral and is associated with lesser amounts of quartz, calcite, barite, fluorite, anhydrite, gypsum, and bitumen. Some deposits containing barite as the dominant ore mineral have various amounts of fluorite and pyrite; sphalerite and galena may be present locally along with the other gangue minerals typical of the zinc deposits. The paragenetic sequences of the minerals have been determined for most of the mines and many of the prospects, and, except for minor refinements, will be little changed by additional studies. The real problem, though, is the correlation of these depositional sequences from mine to mine and from district to district. Perhaps the major difficulty in the correlation is the seemingly uncomplicated mineralogy that disguises a rather complex regional paragenesis. Questions regarding the routes the ore fluids travelled to reach the sites of deposition, the reasons why the ores are concentrated in some areas more than others, and the reasons why the mineralogy varies from area to area are questions that are unanswered or at best only partly answered. Studies to date have produced convincing evidence concerning the nature of the structures and the physical conditions responsible for the localization of ore in the Kingsport Formation (Lower Ordovician). On the other hand, the relation of the Kingsport ores to the smaller deposits in the underlying Lower Ordovician and Cambrian rocks is but little understood, and no final answer to the origin of these deposits can be reached until this relationship has been satisfactorily explained. Fluid inclusion studies, trace element analysis, and isotopic studies of all sorts are needed to further our understanding of these seemingly simple ores. Continued detailed studies of field relations, both regional and local, are of major importance, not only for what they will reveal in themselves, but also to perfect the frames of reference in which to place the growing mass of laboratory data.

Tennessee↗
USGS2001

Water-quality characteristics in the Black Hills area, South Dakota

This report summarizes the water-quality characteristics of ground-water and surface-water in the Black Hills area. Differences in groundwater quality by aquifer and differences in surfacewater quality by water source are presented. Ground-water characteristics are discussed individually for each of the major aquifers in the Black Hills area, referred to herein as the Precambrian, Deadwood, Madison, Minnelusa, Minnekahta, and Inyan Kara aquifers. Characteristics for minor aquifers also are discussed briefly. Surface-water characteristics are discussed for hydrogeologic settings including headwater springs, crystalline core sites, artesian springs, and exterior sites. To characterize the water quality of aquifers and streams in the Black Hills area, data from the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System water-quality database were examined. This included samples collected as part of the Black Hills Hydrology Study as well as for other studies within the time frame of October 1, 1930, to September 30, 1998. Tables of individual results are not presented in this report, only summaries. Constituents summarized and discussed include physical properties, common ions, nutrients, trace elements, and radionuclides. Comparisons of concentration levels are made to drinking-water standards as well as beneficial-use and aquatic-life criteria. Ground water within the Black Hills and surrounding area generally is fresh and hard to very hard. Concentrations exceeding various Secondary and Maximum Contaminant Levels may affect the use of the water in some areas for many aquifers within the study area. Concentrations that exceed Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (SMCL's) generally affect the water only aesthetically. Radionuclide concentrations may be especially high in some of the major aquifers used within the study area and preclude the use of water in some areas. The sodiumadsorption ratio and specific conductance may affect irrigation use for some wells. High concentrations of iron and manganese are the only concentrations that may hamper the use of water from Precambrian aquifers. The principal deterrents to use of water from the Deadwood aquifer are the high concentrations of radionuclides as well as iron and manganese. Iron, manganese, and hardness may deter use of water from the Madison aquifer as well as dissolved solids and sulfate in downgradient wells (generally deeper than 2,000 feet). Iron, manganese, and hardness may also deter use of the Minnelusa aquifer. Water from the Minnekahta aquifer generally is suitable for all water uses although it is hard to very hard. High concentrations of dissolved solids, iron, sulfate, and manganese may hamper the use of water from the Inyan Kara aquifer. In the southern Black Hills, radium-226 and uranium concentrations also may preclude use of water from the Inyan Kara aquifer. Suitability for irrigation may be affected by high specific conductance and sodium-adsorption ratio for the Inyan Kara. Surface-water quality within the Black Hills and surrounding area generally is very good but the water is hard to very hard. Concentrations of some constituents in the study area tend to be higher exterior to the Black Hills, primarily due to influences from the Cretaceous-age marine shales, including dissolved solids, sodium, sulfate, selenium, and uranium. Headwater springs have relatively constant discharge, specific conductance, dissolved solids, and concentrations of most other constituents. Concentrations at crystalline core sites are very similar to those found in samples from Precambrian aquifers. Some high nitrate concentrations greater than the Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 10 mg/L (milligrams per liter) have occurred at Annie Creek near Lead, which have been attributed to mining impacts. Trace elements generally are low with the exception of arsenic, for which 60 percent of samples exceed the proposed MCL of 10 ug/L (micrograms per liter) and one sample

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS2008

Major- and trace-element concentrations in soils from northern California: Results from the Geochemical Landscapes Project pilot study

In 2004, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC), and the Mexican Geological Survey (Servicio Geologico Mexicano, or SGM) initiated pilot studies in preparation for a soil geochemical survey of North America called the Geochemical Landscapes Project. The purpose of this project is to provide a better understanding of the variability in chemical composition of soils in North America. The data produced by this survey will be used to construct baseline geochemical maps for regions within the continent. Two initial pilot studies were conducted: (1) a continental-scale study involving a north-south and east-west transect across North America and (2) a regional-scale study. The pilot studies were intended to test and refine sample design, sampling protocols, and field logistics for the full continental soils geochemical survey. Smith and others (2005) reported the results from the continental-scale pilot study. The regional-scale California study was designed to represent more detailed, higher resolution geochemical investigations in a region of particular interest that was identified from the low-sample-density continental-scale survey. A 20,000-km2 area of northern California (fig. 1), representing a wide variety of topography, climate, and ecoregions, was chosen for the regional-scale pilot study. This study area also contains diverse geology and soil types and supports a wide range of land uses including agriculture in the Sacramento Valley, forested areas in portions of the Sierra Nevada, and urban/suburban centers such as Sacramento, Davis, and Stockton. Also of interest are potential effects on soil geochemistry from historical hard rock and placer gold mining in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, historical mercury mining in the Coast Range, and mining of base-metal sulfide deposits in the Klamath Mountains to the north. This report presents the major- and trace-element concentrations from the regional-scale soil geochemical survey in northern California.

California↗
USGS2020

Trends in thermal maturity indicators for the organic sulfur-rich Eagle Ford Shale

Thermal maturity is critical to evaluate petroleum systems and to interpret biomarker results for paleoenvironmental and geobiology studies. Many thermal maturity indices were developed for marine source rocks containing type II kerogen, but their behavior in organic sulfur-rich source rocks requires more investigation. Here, we present geochemical analyses of whole and extracted rock, isolated kerogens, and extractable organic matter across a natural thermal maturity transect of the Upper Cretaceous Eagle Ford Shale to evaluate the behavior of maturity parameters in organic sulfur-rich source rocks. The samples contain similar mineralogy and trace element composition, minimizing potential facies effects on thermal maturity parameters. Atomic H/C ratios of isolated kerogens, extractable organic matter yield, and programmed pyrolysis results show that the samples range from the pre-oil through dry gas generation windows. Programmed pyrolysis data and kerogen elemental ratios show that the immature samples host both type IIS (atomic Sorg/C > 0.04) and sulfur-rich type II kerogen (kerogen Sorg/C: 0.032 to 0.045) while the samples with lower kerogen Sorg/C ratios (kerogen Sorg/C < 0.03) are more mature. The vitrinite reflectance values corresponding to the onset of oil generation in the Eagle Ford are comparable to other type II petroleum systems. Likewise, the organic sulfur-rich Eagle Ford follows a similar hydrogen index and kerogen H/C trend as other marine type II source rocks. Hopane and sterane stereoisomer maturity ratios are anomalously elevated at low thermal maturities, so they should not be applied in organic sulfur-rich petroleum systems to infer thermal maturity. However, some biomarker ratios, including those that are more commonly used as source parameters, strongly track thermal maturity in this case study with limited facies variability.

Texas↗
USGS2007

Assessment of hydrology, water quality, and trace elements in selected placer-mined creeks in the birch creek watershed near central, Alaska, 2001-05

Executive Summary The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, completed an assessment of hydrology, water quality, and trace-element concentrations in streambed sediment of the upper Birch Creek watershed near Central, Alaska. The assessment covered one site on upper Birch Creek and paired sites, upstream and downstream from mined areas, on Frying Pan Creek and Harrison Creek. Stream-discharge and suspended-sediment concentration data collected at other selected mined and unmined sites helped characterize conditions in the upper Birch Creek watershed. The purpose of the project was to provide the Bureau of Land Management with baseline information to evaluate watershed water quality and plan reclamation efforts. Data collection began in September 2001 and ended in September 2005. There were substantial geomorphic disturbances in the stream channel and flood plain along several miles of Harrison Creek. Placer mining has physically altered the natural stream channel morphology and removed streamside vegetation. There has been little or no effort to re-contour waste rock piles. During high-flow events, the abandoned placer-mine areas on Harrison Creek will likely contribute large quantities of sediment downstream unless the mined areas are reclaimed. During 2004 and 2005, no substantial changes in nutrient or major-ion concentrations were detected in water samples collected upstream from mined areas compared with water samples collected downstream from mined areas on Frying Pan Creek and Harrison Creek that could not be attributed to natural variation. This also was true for dissolved oxygen, pH, and specific conductance-a measure of total dissolved solids. Sample sites downstream from mined areas on Harrison Creek and Frying Pan Creek had higher median suspended-sediment concentrations, by a few milligrams per liter, than respective upstream sites. However, it is difficult to attach much importance to the small downstream increase, less than 10 milligrams per liter, in median suspended-sediment concentration for either basin. During low-flow conditions in 2004 and 2005, previously mined areas investigated on Harrison Creek and on Frying Pan Creek did not contribute substantial suspended sediments to sample sites downstream from the mined areas. No substantial mining-related water- or sediment-quality problems were detected at any of the sites investigated in the upper Birch Creek watershed during low-flow conditions. Average annual streamflow and precipitation were near normal in 2002 and 2003. Drought conditions, extreme forest fire impact, and low annual streamflow set apart the 2004 and 2005 summer seasons. Daily mean streamflow for upper Birch Creek varied throughout the period of record-from maximums of about 1,000 cubic feet per second to minimums of about 20 cubic feet per second. Streamflow increased and decreased rapidly in response to rainfall and rapid snowmelt events because the steep slopes, thin soil cover, and permafrost areas in the watershed have little capacity to retain runoff. Median suspended-sediment concentrations for the 115 paired samples from Frying Pan Creek and 101 paired samples from Harrison Creek were less than the 20 milligrams per liter total maximum daily load. The total maximum daily load was set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for the upper Birch Creek basin in 1996. Suspended-sediment paired-sample data were collected using automated samplers in 2004 and 2005, primarily during low-flow conditions. Suspended-sediment concentrations in grab samples from miscellaneous sites ranged from less than 1 milligram per liter during low-flow conditions to 1,386 milligrams per liter during a high-flow event on upper Birch Creek. Streambed-sediment samples were collected at six sites on Harrison Creek, two sites on Frying Pan Creek, and one site on upper Birch Creek. Trace-element concentrations of mercury, lead, and zinc in streambed sedimen

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS1993

Reconnaissance investigation of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in the Pine River Project area, Southern Ute Indian Reservation, southwestern Colorado and northwestern New Mexico, 1988-89

During 1988-89, water, bottom sediment, biota, soil, and plants were sampled for a reconnaissance investigation of the Pine River Project area in southwestern Colorado. Irrigation drainage does not seem to be a major source of dissolved solids in streams. Concentrations of manganese, mercury, and selenium exceeded drinking-water regulations in some streams. The maximum selenium concentration in a stream sample was 94 microg/L in Rock Creek. Irrigation drainage and natural groundwater are sources of some trace elements to streams. Water from a well in a nonirrigated area had 4,800 microg/L of selenium. Selenium concentrations in soil on the Oxford Tract were greater in areas previously or presently irrigated than in areas never irrigated. Some forage plants on the Oxford Tract had large selenium concentrations, including 180 mg/km in alfalfa. Most fish samples had selenium concentrations greater than the National Contaminant Biomonitoring Program 85th percentile. Selenium concentrations in aquatic plants, aquatic inverte- brates, and small mammals may be of concern to fish and wildlife because of possible food-chain bioconcentration. Selenium concentrations in bird samples indicate selenium contamination of biota on the Oxford Tract. Mallard breasts had selenium concentrations exceeding a guideline for human consumption. The maximum selenium concentration in biota was 50 microg/g dry weight in a bird liver from the Oxford Tract. In some fish samples, arsenic, cadmium, copper, and zinc exceeded background concentrations, but concentrations were not toxic. Mercury concentrations in 16 fish samples exceeded the background concentration. Ten mercury concentrations in fish exceeded a guideline for mercury in food for consumption by pregnant women.

Colorado↗
USGS2005

Trends in streamflow, sedimentation, and sediment chemistry for the Wolf River, Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin, 1850-1999

Historical trends in streamflow, sedimentation, and sediment chemistry of the Wolf River were examined for a 6-mile reach that flows through the southern part of the Menominee Indian Reservation and the northern part of Shawano County, Wis. Trends were examined in the context of effects from dams, climate, and land-cover change. Annual flood peaks and mean monthly flow for the Wolf River were examined for 1907-96 and compared to mean annual and mean monthly precipitation. Analysis of trends in sedimentation (from before about 1850 through 1999) involved collection of cores and elevation data along nine valley transects spanning the Wolf River channel, flood plain, and backwater and impounded areas; radioisotope analyses of impounded sediment cores; and analysis of General Land Office Survey Notes (1853-91). Trends in sediment chemistry were examined by analyzing samples from an impoundment core for minor and trace elements. Annual flood peaks for the Wolf River decreased during 1907-49 but increased during 1950-96, most likely reflecting general changes in upper-atmospheric circulation patterns from more zonal before 1950 to more meridional after 1950. The decrease in flood peaks during 1907-49 may also, in part, be due to forest regrowth. Mean monthly streamflow during 1912-96 increased for the months of February and March but decreased for June and July, suggesting that spring snowmelt occurs earlier in the season than it did in the past. Decreases in early summer flows may be a reflection earlier spring snowmelt and large rainstorms in early spring rather than early summer. These trends also may reflect upper-atmospheric circulation patterns. The Balsam Row Dam impoundment contains up to 10 feet of organic-rich silty clay and has lost much of its storage capacity. Fine sediment has accumulated for 1.8 miles upstream from the Balsam Row Dam. Historical average linear and mass sedimentation rates in the Balsam Row impoundment were 0.09 feet per year and 1.15 pounds per square foot per year for 1927-62 and 0.10 feet per year and 1.04 pounds per square foot per year for 1963-99. Sedimentation in the impoundment was episodic and was associated with large floods, especially the flood-related failure of the Keshena Falls Dam in 1972 and a large flood in 1973. Sand deposition is common in the Wolf River upstream from the impounded reach for 2.5 miles and is caused by the base-level increase associated with the Balsam Row Dam. Some sand deposition also may have been associated with logging and log drives in the late 1800s and the failure of the Keshena Falls Dam. In the upstream 1.5-mile part of the studied reach, the substrate is mainly rocky; however, about 2,000 feet downstream from Keshena Falls, the channel has narrowed and incised since the 1890s, likely related to human alterations associated with logging, log drives, and (or) changes in hydraulics and sediment characteristics associated with completion of the Keshena Falls Dam and head race in 1908. Minor- and trace-element concentrations in sediment from Balsam Row impoundment and other depositional areas along the Wolf River generally reflect background conditions as affected by watershed geology and historical inputs from regional and local atmospheric deposition.

Wisconsin↗
USGS2025

Contaminated stormwater sediment source tracking for polychlorinated biphenyls in an urban watershed of the Chesapeake Bay, United States

Fine-grained sediment in stormwater acts as a vector for persistent organic pollutants, like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), through mobilization from sources within drainage areas of impacted urban watersheds. This study implemented a novel approach to identify the relative contributions of various landscape and stream sources of sediment from the Back River watershed in eastern Baltimore, Maryland, and investigated the applicability of using trace PCBs found in an urban environment as discriminants between each source type. Trace PCBs were found to be poor discriminants when identifying the relative sediment contributions of watershed-scale land use categories. When excluding PCBs in the development of a sediment fingerprinting model and instead utilizing trace elements and carbon only, sediment fingerprint modeling successfully differentiated green spaces and eroding streambanks as the most significant contributors to stormwaters sediment (37.1 % and 44.0 %, respectively) of the total sediment contributions of all considered source categories. In all samples collected from various landscape sources, storms, and cores detectable concentrations of PCBs were measured. The results of this study indicate that sediment fingerprinting may not be an effective method in predicting where PCBs may be found within an impacted watershed.

Maryland↗
USGS2012

Assessment of nonpoint source chemical loading potential to watersheds containing uranium waste dumps associated with uranium exploration and mining, Browns Hole, Utah

During August of 2008, 35 solid-phase samples were collected from abandoned uranium waste dumps, undisturbed geologic background sites, and adjacent streambeds in Browns Hole in southeastern Utah. The objectives of this sampling program were (1) to assess impacts on human health due to exposure to radium, uranium, and thorium during recreational activities on and around uranium waste dumps on Bureau of Land Management lands; (2) to compare concentrations of trace elements associated with mine waste dumps to natural background concentrations; (3) to assess the nonpoint source chemical loading potential to ephemeral and perennial watersheds from uranium waste dumps; and (4) to assess contamination from waste dumps to the local perennial stream water in Muleshoe Creek. Uranium waste dump samples were collected using solid-phase sampling protocols. Solid samples were digested and analyzed for major and trace elements. Analytical values for radium and uranium in digested samples were compared to multiple soil screening levels developed from annual dosage calculations in accordance with the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act's minimum cleanup guidelines for uranium waste sites. Three occupancy durations for sites were considered: 4.6 days per year, 7.0 days per year, and 14.0 days per year. None of the sites exceeded the radium soil screening level of 96 picocuries per gram, corresponding to a 4.6 days per year exposure. Two sites exceeded the radium soil screening level of 66 picocuries per gram, corresponding to a 7.0 days per year exposure. Seven sites exceeded the radium soil screening level of 33 picocuries per gram, corresponding to a 14.0 days per year exposure. A perennial stream that flows next to the toe of a uranium waste dump was sampled, analyzed for major and trace elements, and compared with existing aquatic-life and drinking-water-quality standards. None of the water-quality standards were exceeded in the stream samples.

Utah↗
USGS2002

Elemental chemistry of streambed sediments of the St. Croix River Basin, 2000

Streambed sediments from 30 sites in the St. Croix River Basin were analyzed for selected chemical elements. Possible occurrences of low-level contamination include: (1) elevated concentrations of arsenic, lead, silver, and to a lesser extent cadmium, copper, and mercury in the Namekagon River downstream of Hayward, Wisconsin; (2) elevated lead concentrations in the St. Croix River downstream of the Stillwater, Minnesota&mdash;Hudson, Wisconsin region; (3) slightly elevated concentrations of Arsenic, Cadmium, Copper, Lead, Mercury, Silver, Vanadium, and Zinc in the Kettle River downstream of Sandstone and Hinckley, Minnesota; (4) and substantially elevated mercury concentrations in Rush Creek downstream of Rush City, Minnesota. Elevated concentrations of copper, lead, and to a lesser extent cadmium, in Osceola Creek, downstream of Osceola, Wisconsin may be due to anthropogenic sources or contributions from bedrock that differs geochemically from sediments farther upstream. There does not appear to be large anthropogenic contributions of trace elements&mdash;above the background geochemical and atmospherically deposited levels&mdash;in the streams sampled for this study. Many of the elements appear to be associated with mineral sources. Concentrations of potentially toxic trace elements in the St. Croix River Basin generally were lower than concentrations associated with frequent adverse effects to aquatic biota. Exceptions were arsenic (7 of 30 samples) and mercury (1 of 30 samples).

Minnesota, Wisconsin↗
USGS2016

Hydrological conditions and evaluation of sustainable groundwater use in the Sierra Vista Subwatershed, Upper San Pedro Basin, southeastern Arizona

This study assessed progress toward achieving sustainable groundwater use in the Sierra Vista Subwatershed of the Upper San Pedro Basin, Arizona, through evaluation of 14 indicators of sustainable use. Sustainable use of groundwater in the Sierra Vista Subwatershed requires, at a minimum, a stable rate of groundwater discharge to, and thus base flow in, the San Pedro River. Many of the 14 indicators are therefore related to long-term or short-term effects on base flow and provide us with a means to evaluate groundwater discharge to and base flow in the San Pedro River. The indicators were based primarily on 10 to 20 years of data monitoring in the subwatershed, ending in 2012, and included subwatershedwide indicators, riparian-system indicators, San Pedro River indicators, and springs indicators. Groundwater management actions including voluntary retirement of irrigation pumping in the subwatershed resulted in about a 5,100 acre-feet (acre-ft) reduction in net human use from 2002 to 2012. Subwatershed population increased more than 10,000 during the same period. Most of the reduction occurred during 2002&ndash;07 and included reductions in groundwater pumping and increases in managed recharge; net human use varied annually by a few hundred acre-ft during 2007&ndash;12. The groundwater budget for 2012 showed a deficit of about 5,000 acre-ft, although the total water-budget uncertainty was about 5,500 acre-ft. In the vicinity of the U.S. Army&rsquo;s Fort Huachuca, regional-aquifer water levels were in steady decline beginning in at least the mid-1990s (in older wells since at least the early-1970s), as the cone of depression centered on the Sierra Vista and Fort Huachuca pumping centers continued to deepen. This was evident in the individual water levels on Fort Huachuca, as well as from the horizontal hydraulic gradients that extend from the pumping centers toward the San Pedro and Babocomari Rivers. Basin water levels in wells southeast of Sierra Vista, away from the river, were also experiencing declines, while some water levels closer to the river were rising. Near-stream vertical gradients along the San Pedro River showed no clear increasing or decreasing trends that would indicate a shift in the direction of subsurface flow between the riverbed and the alluvial aquifer, or a trend in the magnitude of groundwater/surface-water exchange. Annual streamflow permanence data showed no clear change in streamflow permanence trends in any of the river reaches, other than those related to precipitation trends. Similarly, the single-day, dry-season, wet-dry streamflow analysis of all subwatershed river reaches indicated no change in condition over the past 14 years, with the exception of the Hereford reach, which has seen a statistically significant increase in wetted length. Dry-season, alluvial-aquifer water levels in the Hereford reach also showed a statistically significant increase. These improvements are attributed to the end of irrigation pumping in the area. Although data indicate that the length of the Fairbank North wetted reach may be in decline, it is not yet statistically significant. Stable-isotope data indicated reduced groundwater discharge to the Babocomari River in the vicinity of the Babocomari River near Tombstone gaging station and to the San Pedro River near the San Pedro River at Palominas gaging station and near the Lewis Springs DCP stage recorder. The Babocomari River near Tombstone gaging station is downgradient of the major pumping centers. The change in isotopic signature at the Lewis Springs stage recorder could have been the result of alterations in groundwater/surface-water interactions there caused by beaver damming of the river. Base flow in the San Pedro River declined over the periods of record at the three San Pedro River gaging stations in the subwatershed (Palominas, Charleston, and Tombstone), as well as at the Babocomari River near Tombstone gaging station. Precipitation declined slightly from the 1990s to the 2000s, although there is no statistically significant trend in subwatershed precipitation from 1991 to 2012. The occurrence of large winter discharge events appeared to decline and that of large summer discharge events appeared to increase over this same period. Data for physical parameters, general chemistry, nutrient species, select trace elements, and suspended sediment were collected at San Pedro River at Charleston stream-gaging station. These data were summarized over time and analyzed in relation to discharge and season as a means to assess trends over the period of analysis. Federal and State of Arizona drinking-water and human-contact standards were all met and few exceedances occurred for the ecological thresholds investigated. Several constituents showed a significant trend over the period of analysis, but only concentration and flux data for total phosphate, orthophosphate, total nitrogen, suspended sediment, and sulfate were suitable to be used in a weighted regression analysis that statistically accounted for time, discharge, and season. Sulfate concentrations and flux showed a significant downward trend over the period of analysis, whereas total phosphorus and ortho-phosphate showed a relatively small magnitude upward trend relative to standards. Suspended sediment concentrations and flux both showed a significant downward trend in the 1980s, an effect attributed to reduction of cattle in the subwatershed at about this time, and (or) increased cottonwood ( Populus fremontii ) and willow ( Salix goodingii ) recruitment, and (or) the curtailment of sand and gravel mining adjacent to the San Pedro River with the designation of the San Pedro Riparian National Conservation Area in 1988. A spike in sediment flux in 2006 may be attributable to the more than 100 debris flows in the Huachuca Mountains during the summer monsoon of that year. Spring discharge along the San Pedro River generally increased at three sites proximate to the Sierra Vista treated effluent recharge facility and varied somewhat with climate at two other sites. Median annual discharge at the recharge facility peaked in 2006, and at Murray Springs and Horsethief Spring, downgradient of the recharge facility, in 2009. Sampling for trace organic compounds in flow from springs was carried out using both discrete sampling and passive sampling methods. Spring samples thus collected showed the presence of trace-organic compounds. Lewis Springs (background site) had the least number of detections, whereas Murray Springs, located directly downgradient of the City of Sierra Vista&rsquo;s treated effluent recharge facility, had the greatest number of detections of all the springs. Discrete samples from the recharge facility had more than twice the detections found in discrete samples from Murray Spring and at much higher concentrations. Few similar trace-organic compounds were detected at both the springs and the treated effluent recharge facility, and the number of detections did not increase during the collection period. Limitations of the study prevented the determination of trace-organic concentration in passive samplers and also prevented linking trace organic compounds detected at the treated effluent recharge facility with compounds detected from the springs. In particular, trace organic compounds could also derive from other sources such as septic systems. Looking at the subwatershed as a whole, base flow was in decline along the entire river reach, but determination of the specific cause of the decline was beyond the scope of this report. Conditions in the area from the municipal pumping center of Sierra Vista and Fort Huachuca northeast to the river (from about the Charleston to Tombstone gaging stations) were more commonly in decline than in regions further south. Both long-term indicators, such as regional aquifer groundwater levels and horizontal gradients, and the isotope analysis indicated that groundwater discharge to the river and thus base flow may continue to decline in that area. South of Charleston, indicators were more mixed. Some indicators in the Hereford reach suggest groundwater discharge to the San Pedro River may be increasing there, whereas some indicators in the Palominas reach suggest groundwater discharge to the river there may be declining.

Arizona↗
USGS2001

Occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and trace elements in fish tissue in the lower Tennessee River basin, 1980-98

The U.S. Geological Survey, as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program, evaluated the occurrence and distribution of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and trace elements in fish tissue in samples collected in the lower Tennessee River Basin study unit. Fish tissue analysis provides a time-averaged measurement of contaminants as well as a direct measurement of the contaminants that bioaccumulate in fish tissue. Bioaccumulation of contaminants in fish tissue may result in concentrations that can affect human, wildlife, or aquatic health. Data for two types of tissue analyses were evaluated to assess the occurrence and distribution of contaminants: whole fish for organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls and fish fillets for organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, and trace elements. The fish tissue data analyzed for this study cover an 18-year span including data collected in 1998 by the U.S. Geological Survey as part of the National Water-Quality Assessment Program; data collected from 1980 through 1997 by the Tennessee Valley Authority; and data collected from 1992 through 1997 by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Concentration data for constituents that are on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Priority Pollutant List were summarized and compared against existing action levels or guidelines.From the list of organochlorine pesticide compounds analyzed, p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), a breakdown product of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), was the most commonly detected compound with detections at 83 percent of the sites sampled. Eleven p,p'-DDE samples exceeded action levels or guidelines with concentrations ranging from 0.20 to 12.8 milligrams per kilogram. Five other organochlorine compounds, p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p,p'-DDD), dieldrin, endrin, chlordane, and polychlorinated biphenyls, also exceeded action levels and guidelines, but the detection frequencies at sampling sites generally were less than 70 percent. Mercury, the only trace element to exceed a guideline, was detected at 51 of 102 sites sampled for trace elements. Selenium was detected in fish fillet samples from 70 of 102 sites sampled, which was more sites than for any other trace element; however, selenium did not exceed the 50 micrograms per gram U.S. Environmental Protection Agency screening criteria. Arsenic and cadmium also were detected at 44 and 54 percent of the sampling sites, respectively.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1993

Element concentrations in growth rings of trees near an abandoned wood-preserving plant site at Jackson, Tennessee

Multielement analysis was performed on individual annual rings of trees growing at and near an abandoned wood-preserving plant site in Jackson, Tennessee, that operated from the early 1930's until 1981. Numerous organic compounds associated with the wood-preserving process have been detected in soils, ground water, and surface water within much of the site. Tree-ring investigations were conducted prior to investigations of ground water downgradient from the site to determine if trees preserved an areal and temporal record of contaminant movement into offsite areas. Increment cores were collected from trees on the abandoned plant site, in downgradient areas west and south of the site, and at two locations presumably unaffected by contamination from the site. Multielement analysis by proton-induced X-ray emission was performed on 5 to 15 individual growth rings from each of 34 trees that ranged in age from about 5 to 50 years. Concentrations of 16 elements were evaluated by analyzing average concentrations within the 1987, 1989, and 1990 rings of all trees; analyzing element-concentration trends along entire core radii; and analyzing element correlations between and among trees. Concentrations of some nutrients and trace metals were elevated in the outermost sapwood rings of some trees that grow south and southwest of the most contaminated part of the site; small trees on the main part of the site and larger trees to the west generally contained fewer rings with elevated concentrations, particularly of trace metals. Concentrations of several elements elevated in tree rings also were elevated in water samples collected from the reach of a stream that flows near the southwestern part of the site. Multielement analysis of each ring of a willow growing along the southern boundary of the site detected extremely large concentrations of chromium, nickel, and iron in rings that formed in 1986 and thereafter. Relative increases in the concentrations of these elements also were detected in a silver maple growing next to the willow, but not in another silver maple growing 150 meters farther to the west. An oak growing in the southwestern part of the study area contained large concentrations of calcium and several trace elements, and some trees south of the abandoned site contained large concentrations of phosphorus or potassium. Concentrations of trace metals and nutrients in some trees may be related to wood-preserving activities at the site and possibly to remedial efforts conducted during the early to mid 1980's.However, the possibility cannot be discounted that large concentrations of some elements are from sources other than the wood-preserving facility, or in part from flooding of the South Fork Forked Deer River.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS1985

An investigation of ground-water recharge by injection in the Palo Alto Baylands, California: Hydraulic and chemical interactions — Final report

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Santa Clara Valley Water District, has completed a study of ground-water recharge by injection in the Palo Alto baylands along San Francisco Bay, California. Selected wells within the Water District 's injection-extraction network were monitored to determine hydraulic and chemical interactions affecting well-field operation. The well field was installed to prevent and eliminate saline contamination in the local shallow aquifer system. The primary focus of this study is on factors that affect injection efficiency, specifically well and aquifer clogging. Mixing and break-through curves for major chemical constituents indicate ion exchange, adsorption, and dissolution reactions. Freshwater breakthrough was detected in water-level data, which reflected fluid-density change as well as head buildup. Dissolution of calcium carbonate caused by dilution of saline ground water probably accounts for an apparent increase in specific capacity possibly related to improved aquifer permeability. Adsorption evidently removed trace elements during passage of injected water through the aquifer. In terms of hydraulic and chemical compatibility, the well field is a viable system for ground-water recharge. Aquifer heterogeneity and operational constraints reduce the efficiency of the system. Efficiency may be maximized by careful attention to extraction distribution and quantity and to injection distribution, quantity, and water quality. (USGS)

California↗
USGS2008

Bottom-Sediment Accumulation and Quality in Shawnee Mission Lake, Johnson County, Kansas, 2006

Shawnee Mission Lake is an artificial impoundment central to Shawnee Mission Park, the largest public park in Johnson County, Kansas. The Shawnee Mission Lake watershed has remained relatively undeveloped since the completion of the dam in 1962. However, recent (1990?2006) urban development has been a cause for concern regarding the quantity and quality of sediment entering the reservoir. The U.S. Geological Survey collected two cores of bottom sediment to assess sediment accumulation and quality in Shawnee Mission Lake. Results from this study indicate that sediment accumulation has remained relatively constant from 1970?2006 at the downstream portion of the reservoir. Runoff from urban portions of the watershed are likely responsible for larger concentrations of selected trace elements in more recently deposited reservoir sediment. Information provided in this report can be used by Johnson County officials to help determine the current and future recreational capacity of the lake.

Scientific Investigations Report↗