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USGS1963

Geology and ground-water resources of the Lake Dakota Plain area, South Dakota

The Lake Dakota plain area is a nearly flat surface that includes parts of Spink, Brown, Marshall, and Day Counties in northeastern South Dakota. Agriculture is the principal occupation. Because precipitation often is insufficient for maximum crop production, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has developed a plan for irrigation of the area. Most of the irrigation water would be conveyed by canal from a reservoir on the Missouri River, about 100 miles to the west, but some would be obtained locally from the James River. The surface of the Precambrian rocks, which underlie the area at a depth of 1,200 to 1,500 feet, is the lower limit to which water wells are drilled. Most of the producing wells in the area tap the Dakota sandstone, which has an average thickness of about 400 feet and rests on the Precambrian rocks. The Dakota is not recharged locally; water percolates into the Lake Dakota plain area principally from areas of recharge to the west. Because the aggregate discharge from wells tapping the Dakota exceeds the estimated rate of lateral percolation into the area, some of the discharged water probably is derived from storage. Although the artesian pressure is still sufficient to cause wells to flow, it is much less now than it was when the first wells were drilled in the 1880's. Water from the Dakota is highly mineralized; the specific conductance of water from 71 wells ranged from 2,590 to 4,380 micromhos per centimeter. Most of the water was of the sodium sulfate type and was soft. By recognized standards the water is chemically unsuitable for most uses, but for many years it has been the principal source of supply both on farms and in the municipalities. Use of the water for irrigation is reported to have made the soil unproductive. The Dakota is overlain by younger Cretaceous rocks aggregating 700 to 800 feet in thickness. These rocks, which consist of shale and limestone, generally are too nearly impermeable to be a source of water supply. Unconsolidated deposits of Quaternary age mantle the Cretaceous rocks. Although they consist mostly of material that is too fine grained to yield water freely to wells, the Quaternary deposits contain bodies of moderately to highly permeable material that yield water copiously. Such bodies may be located only by exploratory drilling or, possibly, geophysical methods. The water differs widely in amount of mineralization and in chemical composition; the specific conductance of water from 322 wells ranged from 246 to 13,300 micromhos per centimeter. In most of the report area the water is of unsuitable quality for irrigation and domestic use. The principal source of recharge to the Quaternary deposits is infiltrating precipitation. Evapotranspiration accounts for nearly all the water discharged; the amount of water discharging into stream channels and withdrawn from wells is almost negligible by comparison. Irrigation of the area would increase the rate of recharge to the Quaternary deposits and would cause the water table to rise. Probably it would also cause an increase in the concentration of dissolved minerals in much of the ground water. Artificial drainage would be necessary to prevent waterlogging of cropland.

South Dakota↗
USGS1963

Geology and ground-water resources of Hale County, Texas

Hale County, in the southern High Plains of Texas, has an area of 1,033 square miles. The land surface is one of low relief, and the regional slope is about 10 feet per mile toward the southeast. Surface runoff drains into numerous playa lakes and two intermittent streams: Running Water Draw and the Double Mountain Fork of the Brazos River. The Ogallala formation of Tertiary age is the principal water-bearing formation in the county. The Ogallala lies on red beds of Triassic age throughout most of the county and on rocks of Cretaceous age in approximately the southern fifth of the county. The Triassic and underlying Permian rocks are not fresh water bearing in the county. The Cretaceous rocks, on the other hand, are in direct hydraulic connection with the Ogallala, and a few wells tapping them yield large quantities of water from cracks and solution channels in the limestones. The Ogallala formation is overlain by thin deposits of sand, gravel, silt, and clay of Pleistocene and Recent age. These younger rocks are, for the most part, above the water table and, consequently, are not water bearing. The water in the Ogallala formation occurs principally as unconfined water in layers and lenses of sand and gravel. The hydraulic properties of the Ogallala were determined by a long-term aquifer test at Plainview, where coefficients of transmissibility ranging from 24,000 to 38,000 gpd per foot were measured. The coefficient of storage was determined to be about 0.14. The aquifer is recharged from precipitation in Hale County and in the southern High Plains northwest of the county. The water moves generally southeastward at about 2 inches a day. Ground water in Hale County is used principally for irrigation. In 1955 more than 3,700 wells were used to irrigate 470,000 acres; about 560,000 acre-feet of water was pumped. About 5,000 acre-feet was pumped for other purposes, including municipal, industrial, stock, and domestic uses. The water in the Ogallala formation in Hale County is suitable chemically for irrigation and most other uses; however, it should be softened for more satisfactory domestic use. The high silica content indicates that the water may be unsuitable for use in boilers. The fluoride content is excessive. It is estimated that in 1955 about 39 million acre-feet of water was in storage in the Ogallala formation in Hale County; however, only about 16 million is theoretically available to wells, and a somewhat smaller amount is practically available. About 3 million acre-feet was removed from storage during 1938-55. Water levels in wells have declined more or less steadily since 1938, and it is apparent that the ground-water resources of the county are insufficient to support large-scale perennial irrigation such as that of 1955.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1960

Double-mass curves, with a section fitting curves to cyclic data

The double.-mass curve is used to check the consistency of many kinds of hydrologic data by comparing data for a single station with that of a pattern composed of the data from several other stations in the area The double-mass curve can be used to adjust inconsistent precipitation data. The graph of the cumulative data of one variable versus the cumulative data of a related variable is a straight line so long as the relation between the variables is a fixed ratio. Breaks in the double-mass curve of such variables are caused by changes in the relation between the variables. These changes may be due to changes in the method of data collection or to physical changes that affect the relation. Applications of the double-mass curve to precipitation, streamflow, and sediment data, and to precipitation-runoff relations are described. A statistical test for significance of an apparent break in the slope of the double-mass curve is described by an example. Poor correlation between the variables can prevent detection of inconsistencies in a record, but an increase in the length of record tends to offset the effect of poor correlation. The residual-mass curve, which is a modification of the double-mass curve, magnifies imperceptible breaks in the double-mass curve for detailed study. Of the several methods of fitting a smooth curve to cyclic or periodic data, the moving-arc method and the double-integration method deserve greater use in hydrology. Both methods are described in this manual. The moving-arc method has general applicability, and the double integration method is useful in fitting a curve to cycles of sinusoidal form.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1960

Graphical correlation of gaging-station records

A gaging-station record is a sample of the rate of flow of a stream at a given site. This sample can be used to estimate the magnitude and distribution of future flows if the record is long enough to be representative of the long-term flow of the stream. The reliability of a short-term record for estimating future flow characteristics can be improved through correlation with a long-term record. Correlation can be either numerical or graphical, but graphical correlation of gaging-station records has several advantages. The graphical correlation method is described in a step-by-step procedure with an illustrative problem of simple correlation, illustrative problems of three examples of multiple correlation--removing seasonal effect--and two examples of correlation of one record with two other records. Except in the problem on removal of seasonal effect, the same group of stations is used in the illustrative problems. The purpose of the problems is to illustrate the method--not to show the improvement that can result from multiple correlation as compared with simple correlation. Hydrologic factors determine whether a usable relation exists between gaging-station records. Statistics is only a tool for evaluating and using an existing relation, and the investigator must be guided by a knowledge of hydrology.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1959

Flow-duration curves

The flow-duration curve is a cumulative frequency curve that shows the percent of time specified discharges were equaled or exceeded during a given period. It combines in one curve the flow characteristics of a stream throughout the range of discharge, without regard to the sequence of occurrence. If the period upon which the curve is based represents the long-term flow of a stream, the curve may be used to predict the distribution of future flows for water- power, water-supply, and pollution studies. This report shows that differences in geology affect the low-flow ends of flow-duration curves of streams in adjacent basins. Thus, duration curves are useful in appraising the geologic characteristics of drainage basins. A method for adjusting flow-duration curves of short periods to represent long-term conditions is presented. The adjustment is made by correlating the records of a short-term station with those of a long-term station.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1960

Flood-frequency analyses, Manual of Hydrology: Part 3

This report describes the method used by the U.S. Geological Survey to determine the magnitude and frequency of momentary peak discharges at any place on a stream, whether a gaging-station record is available or not. The method is applicable to a region of any size, as a river basin or a State, so long as the region is hydrologically homogeneous. The analysis provides two curves. The first expresses the flood discharge-time relation, showing variation of peak discharge, expressed as a ratio to the mean annual flood, with recurrence interval. The second relates the mean annual flood to the size of drainage area alone, or to the size area and other significant basin characteristics. A frequency curve may be defined for any place in the region by use of these two curves. The procedure is: (a) measure the drainage area and other appropriate basin characteristics from maps; (b) from the second curve, select the mean annual flood corresponding to the proper drainage area factors; (c) from the first curve, select ratios of peak discharge to mean annual flood for selected recurrence intervals, as 2, 10, 25, and 50 years; and (d) multiply these ratios by the mean annual flood and plot the resulting discharges of known frequency to define the frequency curve. Two reports not previously given general circulation are included as sections of this report. These are 'Plotting Positions in Frequency Analysis' by W. B. Langbein, and 'Characteristics of Frequency Curves Based on a Theoretical 1,000-Year Record' by M. A. Benson.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1960

Storage and flood routing

The basic equations used in flood routing are developed from the law of continuity. In each method the assumptions are discussed to enable the user to select an appropriate technique. In the stage-storage method the storage is related to the mean gage height in the reach under consideration. In the discharge-storage method the storage is determined, from weighted values of inflow and outflow discharge. In the reservoir-storage method the storage is considered as a function of outflow discharge alone. A detailed example is given for each method to illustrate that particular technique.

Water Supply Paper↗