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USGS2002

Managing agricultural wetlands for waterbirds in the coastal regions of Louisiana, U.S.A.

Rice and/or crawfish are cultivated in over 225,000 ha of shallow earthen impoundments within 160 km of the Gulf of Mexico along the coast of Louisiana. The region includes both the Gulf Coastal Plain and Prairie and the Lower Mississippi River Valley. Annual loss of 4,475 ha of coastal wetlands in Louisiana due to subsidence, erosion, and rising sea level has significantly reduced desirable freshwater habitat in the region. The suite of resident, migrant, breeding, and wintering waterbirds depending on this region includes grebes, pelicans, cormorants, anhingas, wading birds, waterfowl, coots, rails, gallinules, shorebirds, gulls, terns, and kingfishers. These taxa utilize the artificial freshwater wetland habitat provided by the agricultural wetlands. Numerous other birds utilize riparian areas associated with these artificial wetlands. Crawfish ponds are especially valuable cool season habitat for predaceous waterbirds because they provide shallow water systems rich in invertebrate and small vertebrate prey during the period from mid-autumn through mid-spring when most rice fields are drained. Because most crawfish ponds are not drained until late spring or early summer, predictable, food-rich, shallow water waterbird habitat is available throughout the region when rice fields are being cultivated for rice production. Incorporation of crawfish management into government-sponsored land conservation programs should encourage land owners to sustain standing water habitat outside of program mandated fill/drain requirements. Farmers could adjust the times when their impoundments are filled or drained to maximize benefits to many species, especially migrating shorebirds.

Louisiana↗

USGS2017

Grand challenges in understanding the interplay of climate and land changes

Half of Earth’s land surface has been altered by human activities, creating various consequences on the climate and weather systems at local to global scales, which in turn affect a myriad of land surface processes and the adaptation behaviors. This study reviews the status and major knowledge gaps in the interactions of land and atmospheric changes and present 11 grand challenge areas for the scientific research and adaptation community in the coming decade. These land-cover and land-use change (LCLUC)-related areas include 1) impacts on weather and climate, 2) carbon and other biogeochemical cycles, 3) biospheric emissions, 4) the water cycle, 5) agriculture, 6) urbanization, 7) acclimation of biogeochemical processes to climate change, 8) plant migration, 9) land-use projections, 10) model and data uncertainties, and, finally, 11) adaptation strategies. Numerous studies have demonstrated the effects of LCLUC on local to global climate and weather systems, but these putative effects vary greatly in magnitude and even sign across space, time, and scale and thus remain highly uncertain. At the same time, many challenges exist toward improved understanding of the consequences of atmospheric and climate change on land process dynamics and services. Future effort must improve the understanding of the scale-dependent, multifaceted perturbations and feedbacks between land and climate changes in both reality and models. To this end, one critical cross-disciplinary need is to systematically quantify and better understand measurement and model uncertainties. Finally, LCLUC mitigation and adaptation assessments must be strengthened to identify implementation barriers, evaluate and prioritize opportunities, and examine how decision-making processes work in specific contexts.

Earth Interactions↗

USGS1996

Ground Water Atlas of the United States: Segment 8, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming

The States of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming compose the 392,764-square-mile area of Segment 8, which is in the north-central part of the continental United States. The area varies topographically from the high rugged mountain ranges of the Rocky Mountains in western Montana and Wyoming to the gently undulating surface of the Central Lowland in eastern North Dakota and South Dakota (fig. 1). The Black Hills in southwestern South Dakota and northeastern Wyoming interrupt the uniformity of the intervening Great Plains. Segment 8 spans the Continental Divide, which is the drainage divide that separates streams that generally flow westward from those that generally flow eastward. The area of Segment 8 is drained by the following major rivers or river systems: the Green River drains southward to join the Colorado River, which ultimately discharges to the Gulf of California; the Clark Fork and the Kootenai Rivers drain generally westward by way of the Columbia River to discharge to the Pacific Ocean; the Missouri River system and the North Platte River drain eastward and southeastward to the Mississippi River, which discharges to the Gulf of Mexico; and the Red River of the North and the Souris River drain northward through Lake Winnipeg to ultimately discharge to Hudson Bay in Canada. These rivers and their tributaries are an important source of water for public-supply, domestic and commercial, agricultural, and industrial uses. Much of the surface water has long been appropriated for agricultural use, primarily irrigation, and for compliance with downstream water pacts. Reservoirs store some of the surface water for flood control, irrigation, power generation, and recreational purposes. Surface water is not always available when and where it is needed, and ground water is the only other source of supply. Ground water is obtained primarily from wells completed in unconsolidated-deposit aquifers that consist mostly of sand and gravel, and from wells completed in semi-consolidated- and consolidated-rock aquifers, chiefly sandstone and limestone. Some wells withdraw water from volcanic rocks, igneous and metamorphic rocks, or fractured fine-grained sedimentary rocks, such as shale; however, wells completed in these types of rocks generally yield only small volumes of water. Most wells in the four-State area of Segment 8 are on privately owned land (fig. 2). Agriculture, primarily irrigation, is one of the largest uses of ground water. The irrigation generally is on lowlands close to streams (fig. 3). Lowlands within a few miles of major streams usually are irrigated with surface water that is diverted by gravity flow from the main stream or a reservoir and transported through a canal system. Surface water also is pumped to irrigate land that gravity systems cannot supply. In addition, ground water is pumped from large-capacity wells to supplement surface water during times of drought or during seasons of the year when surface water is in short supply. Ground water is the only source of water for irrigation in much of the segment. The thickness and permeability of aquifers in the area of Segment 8 vary considerably, as do yields of wells completed in the aquifers. Ground-water levels and artesian pressures (hydraulic head) have declined significantly in some places as a result of excessive withdrawals by wells. State governments have taken steps to control the declines by enacting programs that either limit the number of additional wells that can be completed in a particular aquifer or prevent further ground-water development altogether. The demand for water is directly related to the distribution of people. In 1990, Montana had a population of 799,065; North Dakota, 638,800; South Dakota, 696,004; and Wyoming, 453,588. The more densely populated areas are on lowlands near major streams. Many of the mountain, desert, and upland areas lack major population centers, particularly in Montana and Wyoming, where use of much of the land is controlled by the Federal Government and withdrawal of ground water is restricted. Average annual precipitation (1951-80) in Segment 8 ranges from less than 8 inches in parts of Montana and Wyoming to more than 40 inches in some of the mountainous areas (fig. 4). Most storms move eastward through Segment 8 and are particularly common during the winter months. Moisture that evaporates from the Pacific Ocean is absorbed by eastward- moving air. As the moisture-laden air masses move eastward, they rise and cool as they encounter mountain ranges and lose some of their moisture to condensation. Consequently, the western sides of mountain ranges receive the most precipitation, much of it as snow during the winter months. In contrast, the eastern sides of some of the higher mountain ranges are in rain shadows and receive little precipitation. East of the Continental Divide, precipitation that falls during many summer storms results from northward-moving, moisture-laden air masses from the Gulf of Mexico. These air masses move northward when the polar front recedes; accordingly, a major part of the annual precipitation falls on the plains during the growing season. Average annual precipitation minus the total of average annual runoff plus evapotranspiration (the combination of evaporation and transpiration by plants) is the amount of water potentially available for recharge to the aquifers. Average annual runoff (1951-80) in the area of Segment 8 varies greatly, and the distribution of runoff (fig. 5) generally parallels that of precipitation. In arid and semiarid areas of the segment, most precipitation replenishes soil moisture, evaporates, or is transpired by vegetation, and only a small part of the precipitation is left to maintain streamflow or recharge aquifers. In wetter areas of the segment, much of the precipitation runs off the land surface directly to perennial streams. Because a smaller percentage of precipitation in wet areas usually is lost to evapotranspiration than in dry areas, more water is, therefore, available to recharge aquifers where more precipitation falls. Precipitation that falls as snow generally does not become runoff until spring thaws begin. Runoff is affected in some areas by reservoirs that have been constructed on major streams to mitigate flooding and to store water for irrigation, electrical power generation, and recreation. Water stored in reservoirs during times when runoff is great is subsequently released during drier periods to maintain downstream flow.

Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming↗

USGS2014

Nitrogen transport within an agricultural landscape: insights on how hydrology, biogeochemistry, and the landscape intersect to control the fate and transport of nitrogen in the Mississippi Delta

Nitrogen (N) is a ubiquitous contaminant throughout agricultural landscapes due to both the application of inorganic and organic fertilizers to agricultural fields and the general persistence of nitrate (NO 3 ) in oxygenated aqueous environments (Denver et al. 2010; Domagalski et al. 2008; Green et al. 2008; Coupe 2001; Nolan and Stoner 2000). In order to understand why excess N occurs various hydrologic systems (environments), it is important to consider potential sources, the locations of these sources in the watershed, and the timing of the application of sources with respect to the movement of water. To learn how to manage N in a watershed, it is necessary to identify and quantify flow paths and biogeochemical conditions, which ultimately combine to determine transport and fate. If sources, transport mechanisms, and biogeochemical controls were uniformly distributed, it would be possible to manage N uniformly throughout a watershed. However, uniform conditions are rare to nonexistent in the natural world and in the landscape altered for agricultural production. In order to adjust management activities on the landscape to have the greatest effect, it is important to understand the fate and transport N within the intersection of hydrology and biogeochemistry, that is, to understand the extent and duration of the hydrologic and biogeochemical controls as N is routed through and among each hydrologic compartment.

Mississippi Delta↗

USGS2006

Geology, ground-water hydrology, geochemistry, and ground-water simulation of the Beaumont and Banning Storage Units, San Gorgonio Pass area, Riverside County, California

Ground water has been the only source of potable water supply for residential, industrial, and agricultural users in the Beaumont and Banning storage units of the San Gorgonio Pass area, Riverside County, California. Ground-water levels in the Beaumont area have declined as much as 100 feet between the early 1920s and early 2000s, and numerous natural springs have stopped flowing. In 1961, the San Gorgonio Pass Water Agency (SGPWA) entered into a contract with the California State Department of Water Resources to receive 17,300 acre-feet per year of water to be delivered by the California State Water Project (SWP) to supplement natural recharge. Currently (2005), a pipeline is delivering SWP water into the area, and the SGPWA is artificially recharging the ground-water system using recharge ponds located along Little San Gorgonio Creek in Cherry Valley with the SWP water. In addition to artificial recharge, SGPWA is considering the direct delivery of SWP water for the irrigation of local golf courses and for agricultural supply in lieu of ground-water pumpage. To better understand the potential hydrologic effects of different water-management alternatives on ground-water levels and movement in the Beaumont and Banning storage units, existing geohydrologic and geochemical data were compiled, new data from a basin-wide ground-water level and water-quality monitoring network were collected, monitoring wells were installed near the Little San Gorgonio Creek recharge ponds, geohydrologic and geochemical analyses were completed, and a ground-water flow simulation model was developed. The San Gorgonio Pass area was divided into several storage units on the basis of mapped or inferred faults. This study addresses primarily the Beaumont and Banning storage units. The geologic units in the study area were generalized into crystalline basement rocks and sedimentary deposits. The younger sedimentary deposits and the surficial deposits are the main water-bearing deposits in the San Gorgonio Pass area. The water-bearing deposits were divided into three aquifers: (1) the perched aquifer, (2) the upper aquifer, and (3) the lower aquifer based on lithologic and downhole geophysical logs. Natural recharge in the San Gorgonio Pass area was estimated using INFILv3, a deterministic distributed- parameter precipitation-runoff model. The INFILv3 model simulated that the potential recharge of precipitation and runoff in the Beaumont and Banning storage units was about 3,710 acre-feet per year and that the potential recharge in 28 sub-drainage basins upstream of the storage units was about 6,180 acre-feet per year. The water supply for the Beaumont and Banning storage units is supplied by pumping ground water from wells in the Canyon (Edgar and Banning Canyons), Banning Bench, Beaumont, and Banning storage units. Total annual pumpage from the Beaumont and Banning storage units ranged from about 1,630 acre-feet in 1936 to about 20,000 acre-feet in 2003. Ground-water levels declined by as much as 100 feet in the Beaumont storage unit from 1926-2003 in response to ground-water pumping of about 450,160 acre-feet during this period. Since ground-water development began in the San Gorgonio Pass area, there have been several sources of artificial recharge to the basin including return flow from applied water on crops, golf courses, and landscape; septic-tank seepage; and infiltration of storm runoff diversions and imported water into recharge ponds. Return flow from applied water and septic-tank seepage was estimated to reach a maximum of about 8,100 acre-feet per year in 2003. Owing to the great depth of water in much of study area (in excess of 150 feet), the return flow and septic-tank seepage takes years to decades to reach the water table. Stable-isotope data indicate that the source of ground-water recharge was precipitation from storms passing through the San Gorgonio Pass as opposed to runoff from the higher altitudes of the San Bernar

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2010

Global change and water resources in the next 100 years

We are in the midst of a continental-scale, multi-year experiment in the United States, in which we have not defined our testable hypotheses or set the duration and scope of the experiment, which poses major water-resources challenges for the 21st century. What are we doing? We are expanding population at three times the national growth rate in our most water-scarce region, the southwestern United States, where water stress is already great and modeling predicts decreased streamflow by the middle of this century. We are expanding irrigated agriculture from the west into the east, particularly to the southeastern states, where increased competition for ground and surface water has urban, agricultural, and environmental interests at odds, and increasingly, in court. We are expanding our consumption of pharmaceutical and personal care products to historic high levels and disposing them in surface and groundwater, through sewage treatment plants and individual septic systems. These substances are now detectable at very low concentrations and we have documented significant effects on aquatic species, particularly on fish reproduction function. We don’t yet know what effects on human health may emerge, nor do we know if we need to make large investments in water treatment systems, which were not designed to remove these substances. These are a few examples of our national-scale experiment. In addition to these water resources challenges, over which we have some control, climate change models indicate that precipitation and streamflow patterns will change in coming decades, with western mid-latitude North America generally drier. We have already documented trends in more rain and less snow in western mountains. This has large implications for water supply and storage, and groundwater recharge. We have documented earlier snowmelt peak spring runoff in northeastern and northwestern States, and western montane regions. Peak runoff is now about two weeks earlier than it was in the first half of the 20th century. Decreased summer runoff affects water supply for agriculture, domestic water supply, cooling needs for thermoelectric power generation, and ecosystem needs. In addition to the reduced volume of streamflow during warm summer months, less water results in elevated stream temperature, which also has significant effects on cooling of power generating facilities and on aquatic ecosystem needs. We are now required to include fish and other aquatic species in negotiation over how much water to leave in the river, rather than, as in the past, how much water we could remove from a river. Additionally, we must pay attention to the quality of that water, including its temperature. This is driven in the US by the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Water Act. Furthermore, we must now better understand and manage the whole hydrograph and the influence of hydrologic variability on aquatic ecosystems. Man has trimmed the tails off the probability distribution of flows. We need to understand how to put the tails back on but can’t do that without improved understanding of aquatic ecosystems. Sea level rise presents challenges for fresh water extraction from coastal aquifers as they are compromised by increased saline intrusion. A related problem faces users of ‘run-of-the-river’ water-supply intakes that are threatened by a salt front that migrates further upstream because of higher sea level. We face significant challenges with water infrastructure. The U.S. has among the highest quality drinking water in the world piped to our homes. However, our water and sewage treatment plants and water and sewer pipelines have not had adequate maintenance or investment for decades. The US Environmental Protection Agency estimates that there are up to 3.5M illnesses per year from recreational contact with sewage from sanitary sewage overflows. Infrastructure investment needs have been put at 5 trillion nationally. Global change and water resources c

Conference Paper↗

USGS2021

OpenET: Filling a critical data gap in water management for the western United States

The lack of consistent, accurate information on evapotranspiration (ET) and consumptive use of water by irrigated agriculture is one of the most important data gaps for water managers in the western United States (U.S.) and other arid agricultural regions globally. The ability to easily access information on ET is central to improving water budgets across the West, advancing the use of data-driven irrigation management strategies, and expanding incentive-driven conservation programs. Recent advances in remote sensing of ET have led to the development of multiple approaches for field-scale ET mapping that have been used for local and regional water resource management applications by U.S. state and federal agencies. The OpenET project is a community-driven effort that is building upon these advances to develop an operational system for generating and distributing ET data at a field scale using an ensemble of six well-established satellite-based approaches for mapping ET. Key objectives of OpenET include: Increasing access to remotely sensed ET data through a web-based data explorer and data services; supporting the use of ET data for a range of water resource management applications; and development of use cases and training resources for agricultural producers and water resource managers. Here we describe the OpenET framework, including the models used in the ensemble, the satellite, meteorological, and ancillary data inputs to the system, and the OpenET data visualization and access tools. We also summarize an extensive intercomparison and accuracy assessment conducted using ground measurements of ET from 139 flux tower sites instrumented with open path eddy covariance systems. Results calculated for 24 cropland sites from Phase I of the intercomparison and accuracy assessment demonstrate strong agreement between the satellite-driven ET models and the flux tower ET data. For the six models that have been evaluated to date (ALEXI/DisALEXI, eeMETRIC, geeSEBAL, PT-JPL, SIMS, and SSEBop) and the ensemble mean, the weighted average mean absolute error (MAE) values across all sites range from 13.6 to 21.6 mm/month at a monthly timestep, and 0.74 to 1.07 mm/day at a daily timestep. At seasonal time scales, for all but one of the models the weighted mean total ET is within ±8% of both the ensemble mean and the weighted mean total ET calculated from the flux tower data. Overall, the ensemble mean performs as well as any individual model across nearly all accuracy statistics for croplands, though some individual models may perform better for specific sites and regions. We conclude with three brief use cases to illustrate current applications and benefits of increased access to ET data, and discuss key lessons learned from the development of OpenET.

western United States↗

USGS1988

Estimated water use in Iowa, 1985

Periodic assessments of water use in Iowa are needed to understand and manage the demands for the available water resources. This report summarizes where, how much, and for what purposes water was used in Iowa during 1985. The data are presented for the following categories: agricultural, self-supplied commercial, self-supplied domestic, self-supplied industrial, irrigation, mining, power generation (excluding hydroelectric plants), and public-water supply. The water-use data are further categorized by county, hydrologic unit subregion, and major aquifer system. During 1985, a total of 1,010,000 million gallons was estimated to have been withdrawn from Iowa's surface- and ground-water resources. Of this, 76 percent was withdrawn from surface-water sources and 24 percent from ground-water sources. Power generation was the largest water-use category, withdrawing 66 percent of the total withdrawals; 99 percent was from surface-water sources. Public-water supply was the second largest water-use category and accounted for 13 percent of total withdrawals; 74 percent was from ground-water sources. Self-supplied industries withdrew 7 percent of the total water use and agricultural withdrawals were 6 percent of the total water use. The remaining 8 percent was accounted for by irrigation (3 percent), self-supplied domestic (2 percent), mining (2 percent), and self-supplied commercial (1 percent) water users. The largest estimated water use occurred in Woodbury County where 201,000 million gallons was withdrawn. Pottawattamie County had the second largest water use with 182,000 million gallons. Other counties with significant withdrawals were Allamakee (74,900 million gallons), Muscatine (63,900 million gallons), and Clinton (62,300 million gallons). Power generation plants are in each of these counties. Surface-water withdrawals were most intensive along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Nearly 80 percent of the surface water used in the State was by power generation plants on the border rivers. Surficial aquifers were the source of 60 percent of the ground-water withdrawals. The remaining 40 percent was withdrawn from the following aquifers: Silurian-Devonian, 14 percent; Cambrian-Ordovician, 13 percent; Dakota, 8 percent; and Mississippian-Pennsylvanian, 5 percent. It was estimated that 17 percent of the total surface water and ground water withdrawn was consumed.

Iowa↗

USGS2004

Contemporary carbon dynamics in terrestrial ecosystems in the Southeastern Plains of the United States

Quantifying carbon dynamics over large areas is frequently hindered by the lack of consistent, high-quality, spatially explicit land use and land cover change databases and appropriate modeling techniques. In this paper, we present a generic approach to address some of these challenges. Land cover change information in the Southeastern Plains ecoregion was derived from Landsat data acquired in 1973, 1980, 1986, 1992, and 2000 within 11 randomly located 20-km × 20-km sample blocks. Carbon dynamics within each of the sample blocks was simulated using the General Ensemble Biogeochemical Modeling System (GEMS), capable of assimilating the variances and covariance of major input variables into simulations using an ensemble approach. Results indicate that urban and forest areas have been increasing, whereas agricultural land has been decreasing since 1973. Forest clear-cutting activity has intensified, more than doubling from 1973 to 2000. The Southeastern Plains has been acting as a carbon sink since 1973, with an average rate of 0.89 Mg C/ha/yr. Biomass, soil organic carbon (SOC), and harvested materials account for 56%, 34%, and 10% of the sink, respectively. However, the sink has declined continuously during the same period owing to forest aging in the northern part of the ecoregion and increased forest clear-cutting activities in the south. The relative contributions to the sink from SOC and harvested materials have increased, implying that these components deserve more study in the future. The methods developed here can be used to quantify the impacts of human management activities on the carbon cycle at landscape to global scales.

Environmental Management↗

USGS2025

Overestimated natural biological nitrogen fixation translates to an exaggerated CO2 fertilization effect in Earth System Models

CO 2 fertilization of the terrestrial biosphere is limited by nitrogen. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is the dominant natural nitrogen source to the terrestrial biosphere and can alleviate nitrogen limitation but is poorly constrained in Earth system models (ESMs). Here, we compare terrestrial BNF from an ensemble of ESMs of the 6th Coupled Model Intercomparison Project to a new global synthesis of observations across natural and agricultural biomes. We find that compared to observations, ESMs underestimate agricultural BNF but overestimate natural BNF in the present day by over 50%. Natural BNF is overestimated in the most productive ecosystems that contribute most to the terrestrial carbon sink (forests and grasslands). ESMs with different BNF representations yield a range of BNF responses to CO 2 enrichment. Some ESMs with phenomenological representations of BNF predict a natural BNF increase in response to a doubling of CO 2 that aligns with a meta-analysis of CO 2 enrichment experiments (31% increase) but fail to account for the substantial carbon cost of BNF. In contrast, ESMs with mechanistic representations of BNF account for its carbon cost as well as its regulation by nitrogen limitation but overestimate the BNF response to a doubling of CO 2 (135% increase). Overall, all current BNF representations in ESMs fall short of fully capturing its response to rising atmospheric CO 2 . Finally, we find a positive correlation between modeled present-day natural BNF and the CO 2 fertilization effect across ESMs, suggesting that overestimated natural BNF translates to an exaggerated CO 2 fertilization effect of approximately 11% in ESMs.

PNAS↗

USGS2012

The macroecology of sustainability

The discipline of sustainability science has emerged in response to concerns of natural and social scientists, policymakers, and lay people about whether the Earth can continue to support human population growth and economic prosperity. Yet, sustainability science has developed largely independently from and with little reference to key ecological principles that govern life on Earth. A macroecological perspective highlights three principles that should be integral to sustainability science: 1) physical conservation laws govern the flows of energy and materials between human systems and the environment, 2) smaller systems are connected by these flows to larger systems in which they are embedded, and 3) global constraints ultimately limit flows at smaller scales. Over the past few decades, decreasing per capita rates of consumption of petroleum, phosphate, agricultural land, fresh water, fish, and wood indicate that the growing human population has surpassed the capacity of the Earth to supply enough of these essential resources to sustain even the current population and level of socioeconomic development.

PLoS Biology↗

USGS1999

Digital Map of Surficial Geology, Wetlands, and Deepwater Habitats, Coeur d'Alene River Valley, Idaho

The Coeur d'Alene (CdA) River channel and its floodplain in north Idaho are mostly covered by metal-enriched sediments, partially derived from upstream mining, milling and smelting wastes. Relative to uncontaminated sediments of the region, metal-enriched sediments are highly enriched in silver, lead, zinc, arsenic, antimony and mercury, copper, cadmium, manganese, and iron. Widespread distribution of metal-enriched sediments has resulted from over a century of mining in the CdA mining district (upstream), poor mine-waste containment practices during the first 80 years of mining, and an ongoing series of over-bank floods. Previously deposited metal-enriched sediments continue to be eroded and transported down-valley and onto the floodplain during floods. The centerpiece of this report is a Digital Map Surficial Geology, Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the Coeur d'Alene (CdA) River valley (sheets 1 and 2). The map covers the river, its floodplain, and adjacent hills, from the confluence of the North and South Forks of the CdA River to its mouth and delta front on CdA Lake, 43 linear km (26 mi) to the southwest (river distance 58 km or 36 mi). Also included are the following derivative theme maps: 1. Wetland System Map; 2. Wetland Class Map; 3. Wetland Subclass Map; 4. Floodplain Map; 5. Water Regime Map; 6. Sediment-Type Map; 7. Redox Map; 8. pH Map; and 9. Agricultural Land Map. The CdA River is braided and has a cobble-gravel bottom from the confluence to Cataldo Flats, 8 linear km (5 mi) down-valley. Erosional remnants of up to four alluvial terraces are present locally, and all are within the floodplain, as defined by the area flooded in February of 1996. High-water (overflow) channels and partly filled channel scars braid across some alluvial terraces, toward down-valley marshes and (or) oxbow ponds, which drain back to the river. Near Cataldo Flats, the river gradient flattens, and the river coalesces into a single channel with a large friction-dominated central sand bar at Cataldo Landing. Metal-enriched sediments that were dredged from the central sand bar were deposited on Cataldo Flats, to form extensive dredge-spoil deposits. From the central sand bar to CdA Lake, thick deposits of metal-enriched sand partially fill the middle of the pre-mining-era channel along straight reaches, and form point-bars along the inside margins of meander bends. Metal-enriched sand and silt form oxidized bank-wedge deposits along riverside margins of pre-mining-era levees of gray silty mud. Metal-enriched levee sand deposits extend across bank wedges and natural levees, generally thinning and fining away from the river, toward lateral marshes and lakes, where dark gray metal-enriched silt and mud overlie silty peat, deposited before the mining era. Distributary streams and man-made canals locally diverge from the river, connecting it to lateral marshes and lakes, and metal-enriched sand splays locally fan out across the floodplain. At the mouth of the river, a bouyancy-dominated river-mouth bar crests beyond the ends of the emergent levees. Thick delta-front deposits of metal-enriched sand slope from the river-mouth bar to the bottom of CdA Lake.

Open-File Report↗

USGS2015

Regional potentiometric surface of the Ozark aquifer in Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, November 2014–January 2015

The Ozark aquifer, within the Ozark Plateaus aquifer system (herein referred to as the “Ozark system”), is the primary groundwater source in the Ozark Plateaus physiographic province (herein referred to as the “Ozark Plateaus”) of Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Groundwater from the Ozark system has historically been an important part of the water resource base, and groundwater availability is a concern in some areas; dependency on the Ozark aquifer as a water supply has caused evolving, localized issues. The construction of a regional potentiometric-surface map of the Ozark aquifer is needed to aid assessment of current and future groundwater use and availability. The regional potentiometric-surface mapping is part of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Groundwater Resources Program initiative ( http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/gwrp/activities/regional.html ) and the Ozark system groundwater availability project ( http://ar.water.usgs.gov/ozarks ), which seeks to quantify current groundwater resources, evaluate changes in these resources over time, and provide the information needed to simulate system response to future human-related and environmental stresses. The Ozark groundwater availability project objectives include assessing (1) growing demands for groundwater and associated declines in groundwater levels as agricultural, industrial, and public supply pumping increases to address needs; (2) regional climate variability and pumping effects on groundwater and surface-water flow paths; (3) effects of a gradual shift to a greater surface-water dependence in some areas; and (4) shale-gas production requiring groundwater and surface water for hydraulic fracturing. Data compiled and used to construct the regional Ozark aquifer potentiometric surface will aid in the assessment of those objectives.

Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma↗

USGS2015

Assessment of aquifer properties, evapotranspiration, and the effects of ditching in the Stoney Brook watershed, Fond du Lac Reservation, Minnesota, 2006-9

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, assessed hydraulic properties of geologic material, recharge, and evapotranspiration, and the effects of ditching on the groundwater resources in the Stoney Brook watershed in the Fond du Lac Reservation. Geologic, groundwater, and surface-water data were collected during 2006–9 to estimate hydrologic properties in the watershed. Streamflow and groundwater levels in the shallow glacial deposits in the Stoney Brook watershed were analyzed to estimate groundwater-flow directions, groundwater recharge, and evapotranspiration within the watershed and to assess the effect of ditches on surrounding groundwater resources. Groundwater, streamflow, and precipitation data collected during the study (2006–9) can be used to update the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resource Conservation Service and Fond du Lac Resource Management Division surface-water models, which are used to evaluate the effect of proposed adjustments to the ditching system on streamflow on wild rice production and aquatic habitats. Specific yields calculated from the well water levels ranged from 0.11 to 0.40, and hydraulic conductivities determined from water levels measured during well slug tests ranged from 1 to 7 feet per day. The values for specific yields were similar to values obtained in other studies done in glacial materials of similar composition in Minnesota. The higher hydraulic conductivity estimate (7 feet per day) was similar to lower hydraulic conductivities estimated in another hydrologic study conducted in Carlton County, Minnesota. The installation of drainage ditches in the Stoney Brook watershed has reduced water levels in lakes connected to the ditch system, and has locally reduced groundwater levels in shallow groundwater adjacent to the ditches and lakes. Differences in near-ditch groundwater hydrographs relative to far-ditch groundwater hydrographs indicate that the effect of the ditches on groundwater is only localized to near-ditch areas. These hydrograph differences resulted in large differences between recharge estimated at wells near and far from ditches. In this study, recharge estimated at wells within 50 feet of a ditch was influenced by ditch-water levels. Annual groundwater recharge estimates from water levels and streamflows during 2006–9 ranged from 0.36 to 34.8 inches, and varied with climate, geology, and well location relative to ditches. The higher recharge estimates were determined from analysis of groundwater levels in wells near the ditches because the shallow groundwater in these wells received both infiltration from ditches and areal groundwater recharge from precipitation. The water-table fluctuation method using a manual groundwater recession approach for wells far from ditches provided the best estimates of areal groundwater recharge to the shallow glacial aquifer because water levels in these wells were not affected by water infiltrating from ditches (bank storage). For wells more than 400 feet from ditches, mean annual areal groundwater recharge estimates using the manual groundwater recession approach for wells screened mostly in outwash sands during 2007, 2008, and 2009 ranged from 4.47 to 18.6 inches (wells 5, 7, 13, 14 and 15), and ranged from 0.43 to 2.85 inches for wells screened mostly in clayey sand or sandy clay (wells 9 and 16). Recharge estimates at wells far from ditches were similar to basinwide recharge estimates from streamflow. Daily fluctuations in water levels in two wells indicated that the evapotranspiration extinction depth in the Stoney Brook watershed is approximately 4.6 to 6 feet below the land surface. A polynomial regression fit of the daily evapotranspiration rates during 2006–9 for well 1 produced a total evapotranspiration estimate of 16.1 inches from June 26 to October 6 for every year. Evapotranspiration estimated from daily water-level fluctuations in wells near ditches is relatively high. The ditch-water surface allowed for relatively high evaporation compared to the land surface, which, with a good hydraulic connection to surrounding groundwater, resulted in relatively high fluctuations in daily groundwater levels near ditches, resulting in high evapotranspiration estimates.

Minnesota↗

USGS1996

Well-construction, water-quality, and water-level data, and pond-infiltration estimates, for three ground-water subbasins, Riverside County, California

Reclaimed water in the Eastern Municipal Water District of Riverside County,California, is used within the service area for agricultural irrigation.Owing to the seasonal demand for reclaimed water, storage/infiltration ponds were constructed in the Winchester, Menifee, and south Perris subbasins.Reclaimed water infiltrates from these ponds and enters the groundwater system. Little is known of the effects of the reclaimed water on groundwater quality. In cooperation with the Eastern MunicipalWater District, the U.S. Geological Survey began a study in 1995 to determine the quantity and fate of reclaimed water percolating from these storage ponds. Data compiled during the first phase of this study are presented in this report. Field reconnaissance of the Winchester, Menifee, and south Perris subbasins indicated the existence of many wells. Wellconstruction data for 115 of these wells were tabulated. Available historical waterquality and waterlevel data for 178 wells in the subbasins also were tabulated. In addition, water levels in 86 wells were measured during the spring and autumn of 1995. On the basis of these data, waterlevel contour lines were drawn and the direction of groundwater flow was determined.Three lithologic sections through the subbasins were constructed from drillers' logs of 26 wells.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗

USGS2020

Operational global actual evapotranspiration: Development, evaluation, and dissemination

Satellite-based actual evapotranspiration (ETa) is becoming increasingly reliable and available for various water management and agricultural applications from water budget studies to crop performance monitoring. The Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) model is currently used by the US Geological Survey (USGS) Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS NET) to routinely produce and post multitemporal ETa and ETa anomalies online for drought monitoring and early warning purposes. Implementation of the global SSEBop using the Aqua satellite’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface temperature and global gridded weather datasets is presented. Evaluation of the SSEBop ETa data using 12 eddy covariance (EC) flux tower sites over six continents indicated reasonable performance in capturing seasonality with a correlation coefficient up to 0.87. However, the modeled ETa seemed to show regional biases whose natures and magnitudes require a comprehensive investigation using complete water budgets and more quality-controlled EC station datasets. While the absolute magnitude of SSEBop ETa would require a one-time bias correction for use in water budget studies to address local or regional conditions, the ETa anomalies can be used without further modifications for drought monitoring. All ETa products are freely available for download from the USGS FEWS NET website.

Article↗

USGS1995

Use and occurrence of pesticides in the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint River basin, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, 1960-91

The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) River basin was one of the first 20 study units selected in 1991 by the U.S. Geological Survey for its National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) program. Because pesticide contamination of surface water and ground water is a concern nationwide, a major emphasis of the NAWQA program is to examine the occurrence and distribution of pesticides in the water resources of these study unit basins. An understanding of the types and distribution of land uses; pesticide properties, pest-control practices, and pesticide use; and an evaluation of the occurrence and distribution of pesticides in the water resources of the ACF are necessary to meet this objective of the NAWQA program. This report describes land use and pesticide use at a county level, and the occurrence and distribution of pesticides in the water resources of the ACF River basin on the basis of previously-collected data. About 33 percent of the ACF River basin is used for agriculture, 16 percent is used for silviculture, and about 5 percent of the basin is in urban and suburban settings; primarily the Columbus, Albany, and Atlanta Metropolitan areas. The remainder is in wetlands and non-silvicultural forest. A broad range of synthetic-organic herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides are applied to land in agricultural, silvicultural, urban, and suburban areas. The period of intensive pesticide applications extends from March to October. Pesticide data available for the period from 1971 through 1989 in the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Information System (NWIS) and for the period from 1960 through 1991 in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Storage and Retrieval System (STORET) were analyzed to describe the occurrence and distribution of pesticides in water resources of the ACF River basin. Collectively, the NWIS and STORET databases contain about 19,600 individual analyses for pesticide concentration in the ACF River basin. Pesticide concentrations were at or above a minimum reporting level in about five percent of all analyses. Most of the pesticide analyses and most of the analyses having concentrations above minimum reporting levels in these databases are for organochlorine insecticides in samples collected five or more years before this study. With few exceptions, most of organochlorine insecticides are now banned from use in the United States. Concentrations of currently (1991) used pesticides were at or above a minimum reporting level in about 0.3 percent of the analyses. The geographic patterns in the occurrence and distribution of pesticides in the ACF River basin (as defined by data collected during 1960-91) are, as expected, somewhat defined by land-use patterns. DDT (together with DDD and DDE) were detected in wide distribution in the sediments and aquatic biota of primarily mainstem and reservoir sites in the Chattahoochee, Flint, and Apalachicola drainages. DDT was used through 1973 as an insecticide on cotton, fruits, and vegetables; and for mosquito control, so its widespread occurrence in both urban and agricultural settings is consistent with its use. Chlordane, heptachlor, dieldrin, and related compounds were agriculturally used through 1974, but predominantly as termiticides through the late 1980’s. Compounds in these groups have been found in the sediments and aquatic biota of tributary streams draining the Atlanta Metropolitan area and of mainstem reaches and reservoirs of the Chattahoochee River downstream from the Atlanta and Columbus, Ga., Metropolitan areas. The phenoxy-acid herbicides are widely used in residential, commercial/industrial, agricultural, and silvicultural areas of the ACF River basin. Detectable concentrations of 2,4-D were found in most of the surface-waters sampled in the Atlanta Metropolitan area. It is unfortunate that only limited inference can be drawn on temporal patterns. Many of the Federal and State agency pesticide-monitoring programs have been targeted to known sources and areas of contamination, an approach consistent with regulatory requirements focused on human health; and either were synoptic in nature or were conducted during a limited period of time. Thus, the composite temporal picture represented by these sampling efforts is inherently patchy.

Alabama, Florida, Georgia↗

USGS2020

Pilot-scale testing of dairy manure treatments to reduce nutrient transport from land application, northwest Ohio, 2015–17

Manure and wastewater from large livestock operations have the potential to negatively affect surface water and groundwater, including the eutrophication of surface waters and harmful algal blooms. In the Western Lake Erie Basin, where there is a high density of animal agriculture, harmful algal blooms have been attributed, in part, to phosphorus loading from dairy manure and fertilizer applications. Liquid lagoon manure produced by dairy operations typically has low nutrient concentrations and high-water content, so transportation costs are high relative to the value of the nutrients when applied to fields. Treatment systems are needed to transform manure into a dewatered product that is more economical to transport greater distances and that slows and (or) reduces the release of nutrients in soil, allowing nutrients to remain available for crop growth. This study was designed to pilot test a treatment solution in the Western Lake Erie Basin. The U.S. Geological Survey and Bowling Green State University field tested a dewatering treatment process (coagulant/polymer mixture) for dairy manure at pilot-scale test plots at The Ohio State University Agricultural Research and Development Center Northwest Agricultural Research Station. Automatic samplers were used to collect samples during 13 baseline and 9 post-manure application rainfall events that resulted in substantial surface runoff and (or) tile flow from October 2015 through early November 2017. Results are reported for three test plots that received liquid lagoon manure (raw manure) and three test plots that received polymer-treated manure (treated manure). Nutrient concentrations and flow volumes in surface runoff and tile flow were determined in baseline and post-manure application rainfall events. Nutrient concentration ranges are reported for 9 baseline and 9 post-manure application events as follows: dissolved reactive phosphorus, less than (<) 0.013−2.16 milligrams per liter (mg/L); nitrate plus nitrite, filtered, 0.32−77 mg/L; ammonia, filtered, <0.05−2.6 mg/L; total phosphorus, <0.01−12.8 mg/L; and total nitrogen, 1.49−77.2 mg/L. Volumes are reported for 6 baseline and 9 post-manure application rainfall events. None of the post-manure application runoff volumes were significantly different by plot or by treatment type (raw manure versus treated manure). Because concentrations alone do not reflect the true effects of different manure treatments, loads and flow-weighted mean concentrations of nutrients during post-manure application rainfall events were compared between plots with treated manure and those with raw manure. Loads of dissolved reactive phosphorus, total phosphorus, nitrate plus nitrite, and total nitrogen were calculated using the U.S. Geological Survey Graphical Constituent Loading and Analysis System. Loads of ammonia were not calculated because many of the ammonia concentrations were below the reporting limit. During the post-manure application period, higher nitrogen loads resulted from tile flow than surface runoff. For phosphorus, the opposite was true in that higher loads resulted from surface runoff than tile flow. Combined loads (surface runoff and tile flow) of dissolved reactive phosphorus were significantly different between raw manure and treated manure plots, but there was no significant difference in combined loads of total phosphorus, nitrate plus nitrite, or total nitrogen between raw manure and treated manure plots. Flow-weighted mean concentrations were calculated for the combined loads for the post-manure application rainfall events. Flow-weighted mean concentrations of dissolved reactive phosphorus and, to a lesser extent, total phosphorus were significantly different between raw manure and treated manure plots. Flow-weighted mean concentrations of nitrate plus nitrite and total nitrogen were not significantly different between raw manure and treated manure plots. The differences in loads and flow-weighted mean concentrations between raw manure and treated manure plots indicate that dissolved reactive phosphorus was likely retained in the soil and hydrological transport was reduced for the plots amended with the treated manure as compared to raw manure. Although confirmation field testing needs to be done, these results indicate that the use of this coagulant/polymer mixture shows potential in helping to reduce flow of dissolved phosphorus from agricultural fields with applied manure.

Ohio↗