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USGS1997

Classification and Mapping of Agricultural Land for National Water-Quality Assessment

Agricultural land use is one of the most important influences on water quality at national and regional scales. Although there is great diversity in the character of agricultural land, variations follow regional patterns that are influenced by environmental setting and economics. These regional patterns can be characterized by the distribution of crops. A new approach to classifying and mapping agricultural land use for national water-quality assessment was developed by combining information on general land-use distribution with information on crop patterns from agricultural census data. Separate classification systems were developed for row crops and for orchards, vineyards, and nurseries. These two general categories of agricultural land are distinguished from each other in the land-use classification system used in the U.S. Geological Survey national Land Use and Land Cover database. Classification of cropland was based on the areal extent of crops harvested. The acreage of each crop in each county was divided by total row-crop area or total orchard, vineyard, and nursery area, as appropriate, thus normalizing the crop data and making the classification independent of total cropland area. The classification system was developed using simple percentage criteria to define combinations of 1 to 3 crops that account for 50 percent or more or harvested acreage in a county. The classification system consists of 21 level I categories and 46 level II subcategories for row crops, and 26 level I categories and 19 level II subcategories for orchards, vineyards, and nurseries. All counties in the United States with reported harvested acreage are classified in these categories. The distribution of agricultural land within each county, however, must be evaluated on the basis of general land-use data. This can be done at the national scale using 'Major Land Uses of the United States,' at the regional scale using data from the national Land Use and Land Cover database, or at smaller scales using locally available data.

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USGS2003

Monitoring amphibians in Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Amphibian species have inexplicably declined or disappeared in many regions of the world, and in some instances, serious malformations have been observed. In the United States, amphibian declines frequently have occurred even in protected areas. Causes for the declines and malformations probably are varied and may not even be related. The seemingly sudden declines in widely separated areas, however, suggests a need to monitor amphibian populations as well as identify the causes when declines or malformations are discovered. In 2000, the President of the United States and Congress directed Department of the Interior (DOI) agencies to develop a plan to monitor the trends in amphibian populations on DOI lands and to conduct causes of declines. The DOI has stewardship responsibilities over vast land holdings in the United States, much of it occupied by, or potential habitat for, amphibians. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) was given lead responsibility for planning and organizing this program, named the Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (ARMI). Authorization carried the mandate to set up a national amphibian monitoring program on Federal lands, to develop the sampling techniques and biometrical analyses necessary to determine status and trends, and to identify possible causes of amphibian declines and malformations. The biological importance of Great Smoky Mountains National Park has been recognized by its designation as an International Biosphere Reserve. As such, it is clearly the leading region of significance for amphibian research. Although no other region shares the wealth of amphibians as found in the Great Smokies (31 species of salamanders, and 13 of frogs), the entire southern and mid-section of the Appalachian Mountain chain is characterized by a high diversity of amphibians, and inventories and monitoring protocols developed in the Smokies likely will be applicable to other Appalachian National Park Service properties. From 1998 to 2001, USGS biologists carried out a pilot inventory and monitoring research project in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. A variety of inventory, sampling, and monitoring techniques were employed and tested. These included wide-scale visual encounter surveys of amphibians at terrestrial and aquatic sites, intensive monitoring of selected plots, randomly placed small-grid plot sampling, litterbag sampling in streams, monitoring nesting females of selected species, call surveys, and monitoring specialized habitats, such as caves. Coupled with information derived from amphibian surveys on Federal lands using various other techniques (automated frog call data loggers, PVC pipes, drift fences, terrestrial and aquatic traps), an amphibian monitoring program was designed to best meet the needs of biologists and natural resource managers after taking into consideration the logistics, terrain, and life histories of the species found within Great Smoky Mountains National Park. This report provides an overview of the Park’s amphibians, the factors affecting their distribution, a review of important areas of biodiversity, and a summary of amphibian life history in the Southern Appalachians. In addition, survey techniques are described as well as examples of how the techniques are set up, a critique of what the results tell the observer, and a discussion of the limitations of the techniques and the data. The report reviews considerations for site selection, outlines steps for biosecurity and for processing diseased or dying animals, and provides resource managers with a decision tree on how to monitor the Park’s amphibians based on different levels of available resources. It concludes with an extensive list of references for inventorying and monitoring amphibians. USGS and Great Smoky Mountains National Park biologists need to establish cooperative efforts and training to ensure that congressionally mandated amphibian surveys are performed in a statistically rigorous and biologically meaningful manner, and that amphibian populations on Federal lands are monitored to ensure their long-term survival. The research detailed in this report will aid these cooperative efforts.

North Carolina, Tennessee↗

USGS2023

U.S. Geological Survey science vision for native freshwater mussel research in the United States

Executive Summary North America is a global center for native freshwater mussel (order Unionida, hereinafter “mussels”) diversity, with more than 350 species. Mussels are among the most imperiled fauna on the planet. Reasons for both local and widespread declines in mussels are mostly unknown, although the threats may include habitat loss and fragmentation, diseases, environmental contaminants, altered flow regimes, migration barriers to larval hosts, non-native species, and climate change. Over the past three decades, research on mussels has been substantial. Nevertheless, current conservation and management efforts are limited by significant information gaps. For example, the effects of emerging stressors on mussels are largely unknown and identifying when habitats are rehabilitated and suitable for reestablishment of mussels remains challenging. Additionally, historical and current information on the distribution, taxonomy, and life histories are often unreliable or lacking altogether, and more reliable information is needed for many species. We identified focal research themes, goals, and objectives where research on mussels is needed based on information gaps identified through conversations with resource partners across local, regional, and national organizations. Research on biodiversity seeks to enhance the diversity of mussel species and populations to support healthy aquatic ecosystems. Research on emerging stressors seeks to improve the understanding of how mussel species, populations, and communities respond to emerging stressors, including environmental contaminants and climate change. Research on conservation seeks to enhance the recovery of species and populations and to identify data gaps limiting the conservation of mussels and their habitats. Mussels are in urgent need of proactive conservation because they are an integral part of our natural heritage, enhance biodiversity, and provide vital ecological services that support freshwater ecosystems. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been, and continues to be, a leader in mussel research. Although the USGS is well suited to address the broad-scale multidisciplinary research needed to conserve mussels, the USGS has had substantial loss of scientists with mussel expertise over the past 20 years. However, the breadth of the USGS expertise on mussels can be leveraged internally across other USGS mission and program areas and externally across research partners. Given the breadth and scope of the issues facing mussels across the United States, the research themes outlined in this science vision can only be accomplished through extensive collaborations between the USGS and the full spectrum of natural resource partners, including other Federal and State agencies, Tribal organizations, universities, industries, and nongovernmental organizations.

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USGS2025

U.S. Geological Survey science strategy to address white-nose syndrome and bat health in 2025–2029

Since its discovery in 2006, the fungal disease known as white-nose syndrome (WNS) has killed millions of bats. Of the 47 bat species native to the conterminous United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and Canada, 12 have been affected by WNS, including 3 endangered species and 1 proposed endangered species. WNS has also been detected in 40 States and 9 Canadian Provinces. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) scientists have been critical in identifying the causal fungus for WNS ( Pseudogymnoascus destructans [Pd]), characterizing the effects of WNS, and tracking the spread of Pd in many bat populations in North America. The mission of the USGS WNS and Bat Health Science Team is to deliver integrated science in order to build resiliency into free-ranging bat populations through more effective WNS management, build capacity for bat health science, and enhance bat health information sharing across USGS science centers and cooperative research units as well as with stakeholders. The USGS can play an important role in supporting regional and national capacity building by providing resources and guidance to local, State, and Tribal management entities and by providing tools to enhance disease management. The USGS Ecosystems Mission Area’s Biological Threats and Invasive Species Research Program is the lead Federal program for free-ranging wildlife disease research and surveillance. As of 2024, guided by the science priorities set by the WNS Steering Committee, USGS scientists are engaged in a nationwide response to WNS. This work is done in close coordination with our partners at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Defense, as well as State and Tribal agencies. In addition to conducting WNS research, the USGS is mapping the spread of WNS and coordinating the North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat) to understand how WNS and other stressors affect the status and trends of native bats across their range. The USGS is supporting the national WNS response through four science goals: (1) provide situational awareness on the health of bat populations; (2) conduct ecological studies of bats along the gradient of disease vulnerability; (3) contribute actionable science to enhance the resiliency of bat populations; and (4) implement an adaptive, holistic approach to bat health.

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USGS1996

Level II scour analysis for Bridge 42 (RANDVT00120042) on State Highway 12, crossing Third Branch White River, Randolph, Vermont

This report provides the results of a detailed Level II analysis of scour potential at structure RANDVT00120042 on State Highway 12 crossing the Third Branch White River, Randolph, Vermont (figures 1–8). A Level II study is a basic engineering analysis of the site, including a quantitative analysis of stream stability and scour (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1993). A Level I study is included in Appendix E of this report. A Level I study provides a qualitative geomorphic characterization of the study site. Information on the bridge available from VTAOT files was compiled prior to conducting Level I and Level II analyses and can be found in Appendix D. The site is in the Green Mountain physiographic division of central Vermont in the town of Randolph. The 61.9-mi 2 drainage area is in a predominantly rural drainage basin. In the vicinity of the study site, the left and right banks have moderate tree cover with residential and commercial buildings on the overbank areas. In the study area, the Third Branch White River has a sinuous channel with a slope of approximately 0.013 ft/ft, an average channel top width of 133 ft and an average channel depth of 5 ft. The predominant channel bed material is gravel with a median grain size ( D 50 ) of 49.6 mm (0.163 ft). Bank material is sand and gravel (D 50 is 3.08 mm or 0.010 ft). The geomorphic assessment at the time of the Level I site visits on July 8, 1994 and December 13, 1994, indicated that the reach has experienced vertical degradation. A drop structure has been constructed downstream of the bridge to prevent further degradation. In addition to the degradation of the stream bed, there is local pier scour at the bridge site as well. At the nose of the pier in the main channel, the bed is approximately three feet below the mean thalweg and two feet below the bottom of the pier footing. The State Highway 12 crossing of the Third Branch White Riveris a 220-ft-long, two-lane bridge consisting of four concrete spans. The maximum span length is 57 ft. (Vermont Agency of Transportation, written commun., July 29, 1994). The bridge is supported by vertical, concrete abutments and three concrete piers. The toe of the left abutment is at the channel edge. The toe of the right abutment is set back on the right over-bank. The roadway centerline on the structure has a slight horizontal curve; however, the main channel is skewed approximately 5 degrees to the bridge. Additional details describing conditions at the site are included in the Level II Summary and Appendices D and E. Scour depths and rock rip-rap sizes were computed using the general guidelines described in Hydraulic Engineering Circular 18 (Richardson and others, 1993). Scour depths were calculated assuming an infinite depth of erosive material and a homogeneous particle-size distribution. The scour analysis results are presented in tables 1 and 2 and a graph of the scour depths is presented in figure 8.

Vermont↗

USGS1989

Geohydrologic aspects for siting and design of low-level radioactive-waste disposal

The objective for siting and design of low-level radioactive-waste repository sites is to isolate the waste from the biosphere until the waste no longer poses an unacceptable hazard as a result of radioactive decay. Low-level radioactive waste commonly is isolated at shallow depths with various engineered features to stabilize the waste and to reduce its dissolution and transport by ground water. The unsaturated zone generally is preferred for isolating the waste. Low-level radioactive waste may need to be isolated for 300 to 500 years. Maintenance and monitoring of the repository site are required by Federal regulations for only the first 100 years. Therefore, geohydrology of the repository site needs to provide natural isolation of the waste for the hazardous period following maintenance of the site. Engineering design of the repository needs to be compatible with the natural geohydrologic conditions at the site. Studies at existing commercial and Federal waste-disposal sites provide information on the problems encountered and the basis for establishing siting guidelines for improved isolation of radioactive waste, engineering design of repository structures, and surveillance needs to assess the effectiveness of the repositories and to provide early warning of problems that may require remedial action. Climate directly affects the hydrology of a site and probably is the most important single factor that affects the suitability of a site for shallow-land burial of low-level radioactive waste. Humid and subhumid regions are not well suited for shallow isolation of low-level radioactive waste in the unsaturated zone; arid regions with zero to small infiltration from precipitation, great depths to the water table, and long flow paths to natural discharge areas are naturally well suited to isolation of the waste. The unsaturated zone is preferred for isolation of low-level radioactive waste. The guiding rationale is to minimize contact of water with the waste and to minimize transport of waste from the repository. The hydrology of a flow system containing a repository is greatly affected by the engineering of the repository site. Prediction of the performance of the repository is a complex problem, hampered by problems of characterizing the natural and manmade features of the flow system and by the limitations of models to predict flow and geochemical processes in the saturated and unsaturated zones. Disposal in low-permeability unfractured clays in the saturated zone may be feasible where the radionuclide transport is controlled by diffusion rather than advection.

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USGS2024

StreamStats—A quarter century of delivering web-based geospatial and hydrologic information to the public, and lessons learned

StreamStats is a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) web application that provides streamflow statistics, such as the 1-percent annual exceedance probability peak flow, the mean flow, and the 7-day, 10-year low flow, to the public through a map-based user interface. These statistics are used in many ways, such as in the design of roads, bridges, and other structures; in delineation of floodplains for land-use zoning and setting of insurance rates; for regulatory purposes, such as the permitting of wastewater discharges; and for hydrologic and climate change studies. StreamStats was first developed for Massachusetts and released in 2001. The application provided users with the ability to obtain streamflow statistics computed from data collected at USGS streamgages and to obtain estimates of streamflow statistics for user-selected ungaged sites. Massachusetts StreamStats used geographic information system software and digital mapping to compute drainage-basin characteristics, which were then used in statistical models to estimate streamflow statistics for the user-selected sites. The statistical models were in the form of equations that were developed through a process known as regression analysis. StreamStats was the first known web application with the ability to do interactive geoprocessing. The utility of Massachusetts StreamStats was instantly apparent, leading the USGS to develop a version of StreamStats that could be implemented nationally. USGS State offices normally were required to develop custom regression equations and prepare local digital mapping data needed for implementing StreamStats for their States. Funding needed to complete this work usually was provided through cooperative agreements between the USGS and State agencies. In 2004, Idaho became the first to be released in the national version of StreamStats. By 2023, 44 States were fully implemented and six were undergoing implementation. StreamStats has undergone many modifications over the years to keep up with changes to the underlying software and to add functionality. Customized functionality and separate linked StreamStats applications were developed for several States. Meeting the high demand for additions and improvements to StreamStats while also adhering to budgetary constraints has, at times, been challenging. The StreamStats development team has identified numerous additional improvements that could be made to provide better performance and more functionality. The lessons learned from the experience of building and operating StreamStats for nearly 25 years could be relevant to others interested in pursuing efforts of a similar scale.

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USGS2025

Insights and strategic opportunities from the USGS 2024 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Interagency Workshop

Introduction In 2021, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) published Circular 1490 titled, “Integrated Science for the Study of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in the Environment: A Strategic Science Vision for the U.S. Geological Survey” (Tokranov and others, 2021). Circular 1490 was created to be a resource for USGS scientists prioritizing and planning research related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and to be a guide for developing partnerships with other scientists, State and Federal agencies, and stakeholders engaged in PFAS research and management and mitigation of the environmental and human-health effects of PFAS. This USGS PFAS Strategic Science Vision document was intended to be the foundation for a “living strategic vision,” periodically providing updates on the state of USGS PFAS research, emerging PFAS data gaps and needs, and progress on interagency and stakeholder PFAS partnerships and priorities. To meet this objective, the USGS planned to host an Interagency and Stakeholder PFAS Workshop every 2–3 years. During September 10–12, 2024, the USGS hosted the first Interagency and Stakeholder PFAS Workshop in Reston, Virginia. The Workshop brought together experts from other Federal agencies (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Defense [Air Force, Army]), State agencies (Washington Fish and Wildlife, Virginia Department of Transportation), and academia (Harvard University, University of Maryland) to address key challenges relating to the measurement and modeling of PFAS and the implications for environmental health. Participants engaged in in-depth discussions centered around six pivotal topics related to PFAS: (1) sampling protocols, methods and interpretation; (2) environmental sources, source apportionment, and occurrence; (3) environmental fate and transport; (4) human and wildlife exposure routes and risk; (5) bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification; and (6) ecotoxicology and effects. Each topic had three breakout sessions. A recurrent theme of workshop discussions was how data on a nationwide scale for PFAS occurrence in various environmental matrices, including air, water, food crops, biota, soil, and streambed sediment could help to advance scientific understanding. Participants noted significant geospatial data gaps, particularly in the midwestern and southern United States and the Pacific Northwest. PFAS data collection tends to be more robust along the eastern seaboard and in California. Participants stressed how enhancing the integration of large and small datasets across various agencies could help to support national scale understanding of PFAS. To address these gaps, attendees suggested leveraging datasets from Federal entities like the USGS and the U.S. Department of Defense, State agencies, and municipal utility services to develop predictive contaminant detection and transport models. Improved coordination between water quality programs and USGS research could help to facilitate access to valuable data, leading to comprehensive databases that inform PFAS point (wastewater treatment plants and landfills) and nonpoint (runoff from land, atmospheric deposition, food packaging) sources, environmental transport mechanisms, environmental detection and concentrations, potential exposure routes, and health effects on different biota, including humans. A specific request was made to develop a map demarking the depth of modern (1953 or later) groundwater, which is susceptible to surface-derived anthropogenic (that is, human-made) contamination, based on tritium-age dating. Emphasis was placed on incorporation of hydrology, groundwater flow paths, groundwater–surface water interactions, and landscape factors in predictive statistical models as a step to improve contaminant source identification and tracking. Molecular fingerprinting approaches garnered attention as techniques to link specific PFAS mixtures detected in a sample to environmental sources and levels in biota (Dávila-Santiago and others, 2022). Integrating data from abiotic (that is, water, soil, and air) and biotic (that is, living organisms) systems identified as a research opportunity. For example, understanding the composition of soils and sediments, which include a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal components, could advance understanding of exposure pathways. The discussions highlighted opportunities to explore and understand the potential redistribution and biotic exposures of PFAS from biosolid and wastewater treatment plant effluent land application practices, in addition to atmospheric releases and discharges from landfill and wastewater treatment plants. Participants identified research gaps surrounding how these sources may contribute to contamination and may affect surrounding ecosystems, including a better definition of anthropogenic background concentrations. Moving forward, the collection of co-occurrence data was noted as a means to improve understanding of complex mixtures and to leverage companion modeling efforts focused on areas with high and low contamination levels to identify areas of concern and unaffected resources. Participants emphasized how centralized USGS databases and the establishment of sample-metadata archives can help to ensure that samples are preserved and accessible for future research. In conclusion, the workshop participants identified opportunities to bridge data gaps and improve measurement techniques, modeling frameworks, databases, and communication, to enhance the understanding of PFAS and their effects on environmental and human health. Upon completion of the workshop, participants indicated an interest in developing strategic data collection, modeling, and analytical approaches to address these challenges.

Open-File Report↗

USGS1968

Tertiary gold-bearing channel gravel in northern Nevada County, California

The remains of a huge Tertiary gravel-filled channel lie in the area between the South and Middle Yuba Rivers in northern Nevada County, Calif. The deposits in this channel were the site of some of the most productive hydraulic gold mines in California between the 1850's and 1884. The gravel occupies a major channel and parts of several tributaries that in Tertiary time cut into a surface of Paleozoic and Mesozoic igneous and metamorphic rocks. The gravel is partly covered by the remains of an extensive sheet of volcanic rocks, but it crops out along the broad crest of the ridge between the canyons of the South and Middle Yuba Rivers. The lower parts of the gravel deposits generally carry the highest values of placer gold. Traditionally, the richest deposits of all are found in the so-called blue gravel, which, when present, lies just above the bedrock and consists of a very coarse, poorly sorted mixture of cobbles, pebbles, sand, and clay. It is unoxidized, and, at least locally, contains appreciable quantities of secondary sulfide minerals, chiefly pyrite. Information in drill logs from private sources indicates that a 2-mile stretch of the channel near North Columbia contains over half a million ounces of gold dispersed through about 22 million cubic yards of gravel at a grade .averaging about 81 cents per cubic yard. The deposit is buried at depths ranging from 100 to 400 feet. Several geophysical methods have been tested for their feasibility in determining the configuration of the buried bedrock surface, in delineating channel gravel buried under volcanic rocks, and in identifying concentrations of heavy minerals within the gravel. Although the data have not yet been completely processed, preliminary conclusions indicate that some methods may be quite useful. A combination of seismic-refraction and gravity methods was used to determine the depth and configuration of the bottom of the channel to an accuracy within 10 percent as checked by the drill holes. Seismic-refraction methods have identified depressions which are in the bedrock surface, below volcanic rocks, and which may be occupied by gravels. Seismic methods, however, cannot actually recognize the presence of low-velocity gravels beneath the higher velocity volcanic rocks. Electromagnetic methods, supplemented in part by induced-polarization methods, show promise of being able to recognize and trace blue gravel buried less than 200 feet deep. A broad vague magnetic anomaly across the channel suggests that more precise magnetic studies might delineate concentrations of magnetic material. The usefulness of resistivity methods appears from this study to be quite restricted because of irregular topography and the variable conductivity of layers within the gravel.

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USGS1979

Background information to accompany folio of geologic, mineral resource, geochemical, aeromagnetic, and gravity maps of the Hillsboro and San Lorenzo quadrangles, Sierra and Grant Counties, New Mexico, with sections on geochemistry and geophysics

The Hillsboro and San Lorenzo 15-minute quadrangles of southwestern New Mexico have been mapped at a 1:48,000 scale and selected mineralized areas within these quadrangles have been mapped in greater detail. This area of about 550 mi2 (1,424 km2) is within the southern part of the Black Range and includes much of the Mimbres Mountains and parts of the adjoining Black Range Primitive area. The region is highly mineralized with Laramide (75.1 ? 2.5 m.y.) and middle Tertiary (about 32 to 35 m.y.) intrusions providing the source for much of the base- and precious-metal mineralization. The porphyry copper deposit at Copper Flat is a subvolcanic Laramide quartz monzonite stock that was intruded into a thick section (>2,700 ft or >823 m) of Upper Cretaceous andesite. Numerous gold-bearing veins radiate from the central quartz monzonite stock, and locally offset a radial system of quartz latite dikes. Gold-bearing veins, chiefly along the south and east periphery of the stock, have provided the source for both gold lode and placer deposits. The middle Tertiary rhyolitic plugs, stocks, and dikes have intruded a dominantly carbonate section of Paleozoic sediments and bedding replacement deposits of zinc, lead, and copper are closely associated with tactite in the Carpenter (Swartz) mining district. The rich oxidized silver deposits of the Kingston district are largely fault controlled and a metallizing pluton is not present at the surface outcrop. Some of the silver-bearing base-metal veins in the Kingston district contain rhodochrosite, rhodonite, and alabandite and the highly oxidized parts of these veins have been mined for manganese ore. Very minor amounts of tungsten, as scheelite, occur in thin tactite zones along Tank Canyon, at the Silver Queen claims near Kingston, and at the Silver Tail group of mines along Pierce Canyon.

New Mexico↗

USGS2025

U.S. Geological Survey science strategy to address highly pathogenic avian influenza and its effects on wildlife health 2025–29

Executive Summary Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is an ecologically and economically important animal disease that can also directly affect humans (a “zoonotic” disease). HPAI was once limited almost exclusively to domestic poultry but has rapidly adapted to diverse animal hosts. Viruses causing HPAI now appear to be maintained and dispersed by wild birds largely independent of poultry, though HPAI continues to cause considerable economic losses and supply chain disruptions in the domestic poultry trade. Coincident with the adaptation of HPAI viruses to wild birds, particularly waterfowl and gulls, increasingly diverse wild bird hosts are becoming exposed to HPAI, often resulting in disease and death. More sporadically, HPAI has caused mass mortality events, particularly among seabirds. Furthermore, viral spillover to wild and domestic mammals has become more common. Spillover to wild mammals has resulted in mortality among diverse terrestrial and marine taxa, including episodic losses of such scale as to represent potential conservation challenges. Since approximately March 2024, HPAI has also affected dairy cows, which represents a new threat to the agricultural economy. Lastly, HPAI has increasingly affected humans through domestic animal exposures, exemplifying the considerable implications of this disease beyond animal health. Rapid changes in the ecology of HPAI are currently outpacing research efforts. For example, it is not entirely clear which newly established hosts may become reservoirs for HPAI viruses (in other words, capable of maintaining HPAI viruses within a broad population indefinitely) and how this may influence viral evolution and dissemination. As a result, there are considerable information gaps regarding HPAI in wildlife that, if filled, would improve the ability of scientists, managers, agricultural industry representatives, and healthcare professionals to understand and to anticipate the effects of HPAI on wild animal, domestic animal, environmental, and human health (“One Health”). The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is the lead Federal agency providing scientific research on avian influenza viruses (AIVs), including HPAI viruses, that affect wildlife for which the Department of the Interior (DOI) has management authority. States have jurisdiction over wildlife on Federal lands within their borders (43 CFR § 24.3), so the USGS Ecosystems Mission Area (EMA) coordinates with State natural resource management agencies. The EMA focuses its research on HPAI through priorities identified by the USGS Avian Influenza Science Team ( app. 1 ). Priorities identified by the USGS Avian Influenza Science Team are based on Administration priorities, Congressional direction, and discussions with State, Federal, and Tribal natural resource management agencies that identify specific scientific gaps that need to be filled to inform sound wildlife management decisions. Notable non-DOI Federal partners include the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the lead for the HPAI regulatory response in poultry and livestock, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the lead agency for the HPAI response pertaining to human health. The USGS offers unique expertise and capacity pertaining to research on diseases affecting free-ranging wildlife populations. This expertise has been critical to interjurisdictional surveillance and capacity-building efforts, including programs administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the CDC. The USGS also provides resources, guidance, and tools to inform surveillance and interventions conducted by natural resource management agencies. More specifically, the USGS EMA provides objective and rigorous scientific data for inferring (1) the utility of new methods to detect and characterize AIVs, including those maintained in wildlife and the environment; (2) effects of HPAI on wildlife; (3) spatiotemporal patterns of wildlife host and AIV dispersal; (4) the presence and persistence of AIVs in the environment; (5) how HPAI in wildlife influences consumptive and nonconsumptive utilization of wildlife; (6) how new tools and scientific methods may promote sound management decisions for HPAI-affected wildlife, particularly species of conservation concern; and (7) the combined effects of HPAI and other stressors on ecosystem health and resiliency. This science strategy builds upon research outlined in a previous USGS science strategy for HPAI (2016–20) by Harris and others (2016) . This strategy also details research priorities identified by the Administration (for example, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2025 ) and others based on USGS Avian Influenza Science Team discussions with natural resource management agencies to address HPAI and wildlife health over the next 5 years (2025–29). This strategy presents 7 goals and 26 objectives that focus USGS and partner efforts on priorities that will fill data gaps regarding the effects of HPAI on wildlife managed by or co-managed with the U.S. Department of the Interior such that agencies and partners might anticipate or limit adverse effects on public resources. This strategy also identifies research priorities intended to address HPAI in wildlife and wildlife habitat that are anticipated to support interjurisdictional One Health efforts.

Circular↗

USGS2015

Coastal landforms and processes at the Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts—A primer

Anyone who spends more than a few days on Cape Cod (the Cape) quickly becomes a coastal geologist, quickly learning the rhythms of daily tides and the seasonal cycles of beaches growing and being swept away by storms; swimmers and surfers track how the breakers appear, and dog-walkers notice the hard-packed sand blanketed overnight by an airy layer that leaves deep labored tracks. Careful observers whose paths wander to the ocean’s edge will observe many of the landforms and coastal processes described in this book and if we have done our job well, the stories told here will seem familiar. Watchful experience brings insights; indeed, this is how scientists and perhaps how artists work, describing patterns that explain and predict. When is the next high tide? What will the winter bring? Where do we build, fish, swim? How do wind and waves offshore in the North Atlantic help arrange the plants and dunes and hollows on the beach? And most of all, as human animals drawn to live and play on the edge of the ocean, how do we get the benefits of this complex natural system of geology and biology? How do we affect coastal processes; how is the coast changing now and how is the coast likely to change in years ahead with climate warming and climate change? This book is about the highly dynamic coastal landforms of Cape Cod—the beaches, bluffs, spits, dunes, barrier beaches, estuaries, and salt marshes. What they are, why they are where they are, how they behave with respect to the greater Cape Cod coastal system—how the landforms respond to day-to-day and long-term geologic processes, such as waves and currents, change in sediment transport, relative sea-level rise, and meteorological processes such as hurricanes, nor’easters, and cold front passages. It is also about how the landforms got to be where they are and the way they are and where they are headed in the near future with the predicted effects of global climate warming and change. Our objective is to provide a single source of understandable and readable scientific information for those who live, play, and work on outer Cape Cod and at the Cape Cod National Seashore, as well as to provide an introduction to Cape Cod’s coastal landforms for anyone with an interest in Earth science and nature who wants a better understanding of coastal systems and processes. Basic to an understanding of coastal landforms is the fact that they work together—they interact—as elements of many systems, and therefore our ultimate concern is not the individual landform itself but rather the geologic systems that make up Cape Cod and the Cape Cod National Seashore. Much of this discussion can be applied as well to Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, and other coastal regions. The coast of outer Cape Cod, about 15,000 years old and about 30 miles (mi; 50 kilometers [km]) long, is but a tiny piece of the global Earth system that operates within a much larger realm of space and time. Cape Cod’s coastal landforms are temporary holding patterns within a continual interplay of land, sea, atmosphere, climate, ice, and life, including a variety of human activities that both affect and are affected by these processes. These interactions produce the landforms, and the landforms alter the interactions. The resulting landforms provide habitats for a wide variety of coastal plants and animals. The habitats along with their inhabitants and the interacting environmental factors controlling them constitute the Cape’s complex and varied ecosystems. But for now, we are here to enjoy it. We welcome you to delight and wonder at the perpetually changing handshake between the ocean and shore at New England’s Great Beach.

Massachusetts↗

USGS1994

Major ions, nutrients, and trace elements in the Mississippi River near Thebes, Illinois, July through September 1993

Extensive flooding in the upper Mississippi River Basin during summer 1993 had a significant effect on the water quality of the Mississippi River. To evaluate the change in temporal distribution and transport of dissolved constituents in the Mississippi River, six water samples were collected by a discharge-weighted method from July through September 1993 near Thebes, Illinois. Sampling at this location provided water-quality information from the upper Mississippi, the Missouri, and the Illinois River Basins. Dissolved major constituents that were analyzed in each of the samples included bicarbonate, calcium (Ca), carbonate (C03), chloride (Cl), dissolved organic carbon, magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), silica NOD, sodium (Na), and sulfate (S04). Dissolved nutrients included ammonium ion (NH4), nitrate (N03), nitrite (N02), and orthophosphate (P04) . Dissolved trace elements included aluminum (Al), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), boron (B), beryllium (Be), bromide (Br), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt, (Co), copper (Cu), fluoride (F), iron (Fe), lead, lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), strontium (Sr), thallium, uranium (U), vanadium (V), and zinc (Zn). Other physical properties of water that were measured included specific conductance, pH and suspended-sediment concentration (particle size, less than 63 micrometers). Results of this study indicated that large quantities of dissolved constituents were transported through the river system. Generally, pH, alkalinity, and specific conductance and the concentrations of B, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, K, Li, Mg, Mo, Na, S04, Sr, U, and V increased as water discharge decreased, while concentrations of F, Hg, and suspended sediment sharply decreased as water discharge decreased after the crest of the flood. Concentrations of other constituents, such as Al, As, Ba, Be, Co, Cu, Ni, N03, N02, NH4, P04, and Si02, varied with time as discharge decreased after the crest of the flood. For most constituents, the load transported during floods generally is much greater than that transported during low-flow conditions. How ever, for Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn, V, and Zn, loads increased substantially as water discharge decreased after the crest of the flood.

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USGS2008

The ShakeOut Earthquake Scenario— A story that southern Californians are writing

The question is not if but when southern California will be hit by a major earthquake - one so damaging that it will permanently change lives and livelihoods in the region. How severe the changes will be depends on the actions that individuals, schools, businesses, organizations, communities, and governments take to get ready. To help prepare for this event, scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have changed the way that earthquake scenarios are done, uniting a multidisciplinary team that spans an unprecedented number of specialties. The team includes the California Geological Survey, Southern California Earthquake Center, and nearly 200 other partners in government, academia, emergency response, and industry, working to understand the long-term impacts of an enormous earthquake on the complicated social and economic interactions that sustain southern California society. This project, the ShakeOut Scenario, has applied the best current scientific understanding to identify what can be done now to avoid an earthquake catastrophe. More information on the science behind this project will be available in The ShakeOut Scenario (USGS Open-File Report 2008-1150; http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1150/). The 'what if?' earthquake modeled in the ShakeOut Scenario is a magnitude 7.8 on the southern San Andreas Fault. Geologists selected the details of this hypothetical earthquake by considering the amount of stored strain on that part of the fault with the greatest risk of imminent rupture. From this, seismologists and computer scientists modeled the ground shaking that would occur in this earthquake. Engineers and other professionals used the shaking to produce a realistic picture of this earthquake's damage to buildings, roads, pipelines, and other infrastructure. From these damages, social scientists projected casualties, emergency response, and the impact of the scenario earthquake on southern California's economy and society. The earthquake, its damages, and resulting losses are one realistic outcome, deliberately not a worst-case scenario, rather one worth preparing for and mitigating against. Decades of improving the life-safety requirements in building codes have greatly reduced the risk of death in earthquakes, yet southern California's economic and social systems are still vulnerable to large-scale disruptions. Because of this, the ShakeOut Scenario earthquake would dramatically alter the nature of the southern California community. Fortunately, steps can be taken now that can change that outcome and repay any costs many times over. The ShakeOut Scenario is the first public product of the USGS Multi-Hazards Demonstration Project, created to show how hazards science can increase a community's resiliency to natural disasters through improved planning, mitigation, and response.

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USGS1966

The promise of precise borehole gravimetry in petroleum exploration and exploitation

This report provides comprehensive information on the geology, geohydrology, and mineral resources of Boone and Winnebago Counties for use in resource-based land-use planning and development. Data on the composition, thickness, and regional distribution of glacial drift and bedrock materials were used to construct maps of: geologic materials to a depth of 20 ft; bedrock topography; drift thickness; major terrains; and glacial drift aquifers. Because contamination of aquifers is a serious concern in some areas of the two counties, a major focus of this study is on interpreting data critical to the selection of suitable areas for municipal waste disposal and prevention of contamination from existing municipal landfills and septic systems. Interpretive maps accompanying the text: (1) rate geological sequences on their capacity to protect aquifers and surface water from contamination by land burial of municipal wastes, septic system disposal, and surface spreading of wastes and agricultural chemicals; (2) geologic sequences on their suitability for general construction; and (3) delineate resources of sand, gravel, peat, and dolomite. Areas in which aquifer contamination from waste disposal and other land-use practices is most likely to occur are those in which sand and gravel and/or permeable creviced bedrock are at or near the surface. Areas having the lowest contamination potential are underlain by thick (20 ft or more) deposits of fine-grained glacial till. Areas most favorable for general construction are well-drained locations in major river valleys and terrace outwash plains; areas least favorable for construction are scattered throughout both counties on poorly drained land having low bearing capacities and on uplands and slopes in northwestern Winnebago County where the drift is thin over the bedrock. Extensive deposits of sand and gravel occur in the major bedrock valleys. Dolomite deposits underlie all the uplands of Winnebago County and most of Boone County, but extraction costs are prohibitive where overburden is thick. High-grade dolomite with relatively thin overburden is found in eastern Winnebago County and southwestern Boone County. (Author 's abstract)

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USGS1980

Interactive computer methods for generating mineral-resource maps

Inasmuch as maps are a basic tool of geologists, the U.S. Geological Survey's CRIB (Computerized Resources Information Bank) was constructed so that the data it contains can be used to generate mineral-resource maps. However, by the standard methods used-batch processing and off-line plotting-the production of a finished map commonly takes 2-3 weeks. To produce computer-generated maps more rapidly, cheaply, and easily, and also to provide an effective demonstration tool, we have devised two related methods for plotting maps as alternatives to conventional batch methods. These methods are: 1. Quick-Plot, an interactive program whose output appears on a CRT (cathode-ray-tube) device, and 2. The Interactive CAM (Cartographic Automatic Mapping system), which combines batch and interactive runs. The output of the Interactive CAM system is final compilation (not camera-ready) paper copy. Both methods are designed to use data from the CRIB file in conjunction with a map-plotting program. Quick-Plot retrieves a user-selected subset of data from the CRIB file, immediately produces an image of the desired area on a CRT device, and plots data points according to a limited set of user-selected symbols. This method is useful for immediate evaluation of the map and for demonstrating how trial maps can be made quickly. The Interactive CAM system links the output of an interactive CRIB retrieval to a modified version of the CAM program, which runs in the batch mode and stores plotting instructions on a disk, rather than on a tape. The disk can be accessed by a CRT, and, thus, the user can view and evaluate the map output on a CRT immediately after a batch run, without waiting 1-3 days for an off-line plot. The user can, therefore, do most of the layout and design work in a relatively short time by use of the CRT, before generating a plot tape and having the map plotted on an off-line plotter.

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USGS1987

Development of sinkholes resulting from man's activities in the Eastern United States

Development of induced sinkholes in carbonate terranes in the Eastern United States has resulted in costly damage and water pollution. Previously, detailed investigations of sinkholes were limited to Alabama and Missouri, with the most comprehensive being in Alabama. An investigation of the remainder of the area was made in 1981 to regionalize previous findings. More than 850 sites of sinkhole development have been identified in 19 States. It is estimated that more than 6,500 sinkholes or related features have formed at these sites. Most have occurred since 1950. Based on information available, States most impacted are Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. The total cost of damage and associated protective measures resulting from induced sinkholes is unknown. Costs reported for a limited number of sites were about $170 million--expended almost entirely after 1970. About $140 million were expended at five dams in four States and to repair or protect highways in two States. Sinkholes are of two types, natural and induced {accelerated or caused by man}. The sudden development of both types results from the collapse of the roof of a cavity or cavern in rock, or from the downward migration of unconsolidated deposits into solutionally enlarged openings in the top of bedrock. The occurrence of sinkholes resulting from bedrock roof collapses, in comparison with the occurrence of sinkholes resulting from downward migration of unconsolidated deposits, is rare. Induced sinkholes are of two types: those resulting from a decline in water level due to ground-water withdrawals and those resulting from construction. Sinkholes resulting from water-level declines are caused by loss of buoyant support, increase in velocity of water movement, water-level fluctuations, and induced recharge. Most induced sinkholes resulting from construction are caused by the diversion or impoundment of surface drainage over unconsolidated deposits resting on openings in the top of bedrock. Collapse mechanisms include loading, saturation, and piping. Assessment of existing or potential sinkhole problems at a site requires recognition of features associated with sinkhole development and knowledge of triggering mechanisms that cause sinkholes. Natural sinkhole development is generally not predictable. Induced sinkhole development is predictable in some instances, but is predictable only in the sense that it will occur in a particular area. The most predictable development results from dewatering by wells, quarries, and mines. Alternatives that allow avoiding or minimizing sinkhole hazards are most numerous when a problem or potential problem is recognized during site evaluation. The number of alternatives declines after the beginning of site development. Where sinkhole development is predictable, zoning of land use can minimize hazards.

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USGS1986

USGS research on energy resources, 1986; program and abstracts

The extended abstracts in this volume are summaries of the papers presented orally and as posters in the second V. E. McKelvey Forum on Mineral and Energy Resources, entitled "USGS Research on Energy Resources-1986." The Forum has been established to improve communication between the USGS and the earth science community by presenting the results of current USGS research on nonrenewable resources in a timely fashion and by providing an opportunity for individuals from other organizations to meet informally with USGS scientists and managers. It is our hope that the McKelvey Forum will help to make USGS programs more responsive to the needs of the earth science community, particularly the mining and petroleum industries, and Win foster closer cooperation between organizations and individuals. The Forum was named after former Director Vincent E. McKelvey in recognition of his lifelong contributions to research, development, and administration in mineral and energy resources, as a scientist, as Chief Geologist, and as Director of the U.S. Geological Survey. The Forum will be an annual event, and its subject matter will alternate between mineral and energy resources. We expect that the format will change somewhat from year to year as various approaches are tried, but its primary purpose will remain the same: to encourage direct communication between USGS scientists and the representatives of other earth-science related organizations. Energy programs of the USGS include oil and gas, coal, geothermal, uranium-thorium, and oil shale; work in these programs spans the national domain, including surveys of the offshore Exclusive Economic Zone. The topics selected for presentation at this McKelvey Forum represent an overview of the scientific breadth of USGS research on energy resources. They include aspects of petroleum occurrence in Eastern United States rift basins, the origin of magnetic anomalies over oil fields, accreted terranes and energy-resource implications, coal quality, geothermal energy sources, integrated geology and chemistry in uranium-deposit studies, and interpretations of sea-floor geology seen in reconnaissance-scale sidescan-sonar mosaics of the Gulf of Mexico and west coast Exclusive Economic Zone. Data are presented that are being used in building models of geothermal energy settings, basin histories, and the occurrence of energy resources. In addition to the technical sessions presenting the results of USGS research, each congressionally mandated USGS Mineral Resource Program has a display outlining plans and progress. We are all excited about this continuing opportunity to disseminate and discuss our research with our colleagues in industry and academia, and we welcome your suggestions on improving this series of Forums.

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