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USGS2019

A Methodology to Assess the National and Regional Impacts of U.S. Wind Energy Development on Birds and Bats

This scientific investigations report describes an effort by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) that used research, monitoring data, and modeling to develop a methodology to assess both the current and future population-level consequences of wind energy development on species of birds and bats that are present in the United States during any part of their life cycle. The methodology is currently applicable to birds and bats, focuses primarily on the effects of collisions with turbines, and can be applied to any species that breeds in, migrates through, or otherwise uses any part of the United States. The methodology assesses species at the national and regional scales and identifies those species potentially in need of more detailed study, as well as those species that are likely at low risk from wind energy development. This approach is fundamentally different from existing methods focusing on impacts at individual facilities. This report supersedes USGS Scientific Investigations Report 2015–5066 by the same authors, which described a preliminary version of the methodology. Following reviews of the preliminary methodology by a panel of external experts, public comments, and additional internal review, the methodology was revised and finalized. The three components of the refined methodology described in this new report rely on publicly available fatality information, population estimates, species range maps, turbine location data, biological characteristics of species, and population models. First, three metrics are combined to determine direct and indirect relative effects from wind energy facilities to generate a list of species scores. Second, a generic population model estimates the expected change in population trend caused by the additive mortality from collisions with wind turbines. Third, the methodology combines an estimate of observed fatalities and an estimate of potential biological removal to assess the possibility of a decrease in population size. The latter two components are quantitative. In a test case, the methodology was used to analyze data for six bird species and three bat species. Components of the methodology are based on simplifying assumptions and require information that, for many species, may be sparse or unreliable or may require further study. These assumptions should be carefully considered when using outputs from the methodology. Increases in the quality of data for fatalities from collisions with wind turbines, species distributions, abundance, and demography will likely improve results for uses of the methodology. The methodology’s design identifies and prioritizes a subset of the bird and bat species that may experience population-level impacts from collisions with wind turbines, both currently and from future wind energy development in the United States. Results of an assessment using this methodology could focus future research to improve our understanding of those impacts and to guide avoidance and minimization strategies. In addition, this methodology can be used to identify species for more intensive demographic modeling or to highlight those species that may not require any additional research because effects of wind energy development on their populations are projected to be small. The effects of wind energy facilities on nine unidentified species used in the test case described in this report have not been assessed. Their data were simply used to show the application of the methodology to real-world data and the types of outputs it would produce.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2025

Managing water for birds—A tool for the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, southeastern Oregon

The “Water for Birds Tool” is a spreadsheet-based tool (using Microsoft Excel) designed to help resource managers assess the spatial extent and types of bird habitats in the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, southeastern Oregon. The tool quantifies the areas of open water, partial water, and water depths on a monthly timescale during the irrigation season (April–July) from 2021 to 2024. This tool combines previously published datasets and models but also incorporates new measurements collected by partners. Results show that the relation between the amount of bird habitat and the extent (partial and open water) of Malheur Lake varies by bird guild. The Donner und Blitzen River supplied all or most of the surface water inflow to Malheur Lake during the analysis years, emphasizing the importance of informed management of the river. Additional gaging of inflows and diversions and better estimates of recharge and irrigated areas can help refine estimates of water use on the refuge.

Oregon↗

USGS2024

Managing water for birds— A tool for the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge

The “Water for Birds Tool” is an Excel-based model designed for resource managers to assess the spatial extent and types of bird habitats in the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. The model quantifies the area of open water, partial water, and water depths on a monthly timescale during the irrigation season (April–July) from 2021–2024. This model combines previously published datasets and incorporates new measurements collected by partners. Results show that the relation between the amount of bird habitat and the extent (partial and open water) of Malheur Lake varies by bird guild. The Donner und Blitzen River supplied nearly all the surface water inflow to Malheur Lake during the analysis years, emphasizing the importance of informed management of the river. Additional gaging of inflows and diversions, and better estimates of recharge and irrigated areas, will refine estimates of water use on the refuge.

EcoEvoRxiv↗

USGS2013

Effects of currents and tides on fine-scale use of marine bird habitats in a Southeast Alaska hotspot

Areas with high species richness have become focal points in the establishment of marine protected areas, but an understanding of the factors that support this diversity is still incomplete. In coastal areas, tidal currents—modulated by bathymetry and manifested in variable speeds—are a dominant physical feature of the environment. However, difficulties resolving tidally affected currents and depths at fine spatial-temporal scales have limited our ability to understand their influence the distribution of marine birds. We used a hydrographic model of the water mass in Glacier Bay, Alaska to link depths and current velocities with the locations of 15 common marine bird species observed during fine-scale boat-based surveys of the bay conducted during June of four consecutive years (2000-2003). Marine birds that forage on the bottom tended to occupy shallow habitats with slow-moving currents; mid-water foragers used habitats with intermediate depths and current speeds; and surface-foraging species tended to use habitats with fast-moving, deep waters. Within foraging groups there was variability among species in their use of habitats. While species obligated to foraging near bottom were constrained to use similar types of habitat, species in the mid-water foraging group were associated with a wider range of marine habitat characteristics. Species also showed varying levels of site use depending on tide stage. The dramatic variability in bottom topography—especially the presence of numerous sills, islands, headlands and channels—and large tidal ranges in Glacier Bay create a wide range of current-affected fine-scale foraging habitats that may contribute to the high diversity of marine bird species found there.

Alaska↗

USGS2024

Lack of strong responses to the Pacific marine heatwave by benthivorous marine birds indicates importance of trophic drivers

The Pacific marine heatwave (PMH) of 2014-2016 was an intense, long-lasting environmental disturbance expressed throughout the north Pacific. While dramatic consequences of the PMH on pelagic food webs have been well documented, effects on nearshore food webs, i.e., those based on macroalgae primary productivity, benthic invertebrate intermediate consumers, and specialized benthivorous top predators including some marine birds, are not well understood. We conducted summer and winter coastline surveys in two National Parks in the northern Gulf of Alaska from 2006 – 2022. We evaluated changes in abundance of benthivorous marine birds in relation to the heatwave, after accounting for effects of season and region. We also evaluated changes in abundance of nearshore benthic invertebrate prey data to allow specific consideration of a prey-based mechanism for effects of the PMH across food webs. We found that benthivorous marine birds, consisting largely of sea ducks and shorebirds, did not show a strong response to the PMH, unlike significant effects demonstrated by piscivorous birds in pelagic biomes. Unlike extreme reductions in quantity and quality of forage fish documented in other studies, we found that common benthic invertebrate prey abundance remained relatively stable, with only minor increases or decreases, in association with the PMH. Our results support the hypothesis that food availability has a strong mediating effect of the PMH on upper trophic levels across food webs. These findings show how a large-scale environmental perturbation affects biological communities through trophic pathways, provides insight into ecosystem resiliency, and can inform management strategies in the face of persistent climate change.

Alaska↗

USGS2018

Inventory of lowland-breeding birds on the Alaska Peninsula

We conducted the first systematic inventory of birds in the lowlands (areas ≤100 m above sea level) of the Alaska Peninsula during summers of 2004–2007 to determine their breeding distributions and habitat associations in this remote region. Using a stratified random survey design, we allocated sample plots by elevation and land cover with a preference for wetland cover types used by shorebirds, a group of particular interest to land managers. We surveyed birds during 10-min counts at 792 points across 52, 5 km × 5 km sample plots distributed from south of the Naknek River (58.70°N,157.00°W) to north of Port Moller (56.00°N,160.52°W). We detected 95 bird species including 19 species of shorebirds and 34 species (36% of total) considered at the time to be of conservation concern for the land managers in the region. The most numerous shorebirds on point counts were dunlin Calidris alpina, short-billed dowitcher Limnodromus griseus, and Wilson's snipe Gallinago delicata. We found the breeding-season endemic marbled godwit Limosa fedoa beringiae at 20 plots within a 3,000-km 2 area from north of Ugashik Bay to just north of Port Heiden and east to the headwaters of the Dog Salmon and Ugashik rivers. The most abundant passerines on point counts were American tree sparrow Spizelloides arborea, Lapland longspur Calcarius lapponicus, and savannah sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis. Sandhill crane Antigone canadensis, glaucous-winged gull Larus glaucescens, and greater scaup Aythya marila were also relatively abundant. We categorized habitat associations for 30 common species and found that lowland herbaceous vegetation supported wetland-focused species including sandhill crane, marbled godwit, short-billed dowitcher, and dunlin; whereas, dwarf shrub-ericaceous vegetation supported tundra-associated species such as willow ptarmigan Lagopus lagopus, rock sandpiper Calidris ptilocnemis, and American pipit Anthus rubescens . Tall shrub vegetation was important to several species of warblers and sparrows, as well as one species of shorebird (greater yellowlegs Tringa melanoleuca ). We found that point counts augmented with incidental observations provided an almost complete inventory of lowland-breeding species on the study area. These data form a baseline to monitor any future changes in bird distribution and abundance on the Alaska Peninsula.

Alaska↗

USGS1981

Mesurol as a bird repellent on wine grapes in Oregon and California

Field tests were conducted in California and Oregon from July to October 1978 to evaluate the effectiveness of Mesurol as a repellent to reduce bird damage to ripening wine grapes. A block of vines composed of two similar, adjacent plots was delineated at each of 20 vineyards. One randomly chosen plot within each block was treated with up to three applications of Mesurol (75% wettable powder) at a mean rate of 3.1 kg/ha. Damage assessments at harvest showed that the treatment significantly reduced bird damage in both states, but the actual level of bird damage protection provided by the treatment could not be calculated. Based on bird censuses, the primary grape-depredating species in Oregon vineyards was the American robin ( Turdus migratorius ), whereas house finches ( Carpodacus mexicanus ), California quail ( Lophortyx californicus ), goldfinches ( Spinus spp.), and robins were the primary species in California.

American Journal of Enology and Viticulture↗

USGS2022

Demography and site fidelity of a grassland bird, the Henslow’s Sparrow, in powerline right-of-way habitat

Grassland birds are among the fastest declining avian species in North America, primarily due to habitat loss. In the southeastern U.S., much grassland and open savanna habitat has been converted to timber production or agriculture, neither of which typically provides habitat for breeding or wintering grassland birds. Powerline right-of-ways could provide suitable habitat for many grassland species as these areas are maintained to be treeless. We studied the population dynamics of Henslow’s Sparrows ( Centronyx henslowii ) wintering in powerline right-of-ways in southeastern Georgia through an 11-year mark-recapture study. We used a robust design Cormack-Jolly-Seber model to estimate probability of detection and apparent survival. Abundance varied substantially among years at each site, with density varying from 1.7 to 8.5 birds/ha. Within-year detection probability was moderately high at 28% (24-33%, 95% credible interval [CI]), but apparent survival was very low at 13% (9-17%, 95% CI). This low apparent survival was likely due to low return rates (and not necessarily low survival). However, birds that did return to the study sites had extremely high site fidelity, with 82% of across-year recaptures < 200 m apart. This apparent incongruity between low apparent survival rates (likely due to emigration from the study sites) and high site fidelity for returning individuals could be explained by the dependability of the right-of-way habitat, which differs from typically patchy and temporally variable grassland and savanna wintering habitats. Dependable habitat may allow for higher site fidelity than this species would otherwise have, potentially resulting in the high densities we observed. Thousands of miles of right-of-ways in Georgia, and other southeastern states, could be managed to maximize potential habitat for declining grassland bird species.

Georgia↗

USGS1998

Preliminary evaluation of a simple in vitro test for the diagnosis of type C botulism in wild birds

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed for the detection of type C botulinum toxin ( Clostridium botulinum ) in wild birds. This simple, antigen-capture ELISA utilizes polystyrene immunosticks as the solid substrate, chicken antitoxin (IgY) as the coating antibody, rabbit antitoxin as the primary antibody, and peroxidase-labeled goat-anti-rabbit as the secondary antibody. To evaluate the immunostick ELISA as a diagnostic test for avian botulism, known concentrations of toxin were added to heparinized blood collected from healthy birds and tested by both the ELISA and mouse bioassay. Also, blood samples from 236 bird carcasses submitted to the National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) for cause of death determinations were tested by both procedures. Using ≤ 0.5 ml as the test volume for both procedures, the ELISA was less sensitive, detecting 0.25 ng/ml of toxin compared to 0.12 ng/ml for the mouse bioassay. Using the same volume of test sample for diagnostic submissions (≤ 0.5 ml), the ELISA was positive for 60% of the 149 clinically-diagnosed cases of botulism, whereas the mouse bioassay was positive for 79%. However, we demonstrated that with larger sample volumes (≥ 1.0 ml), the sensitivity of the ELISA may be equivalent or better than the mouse test due to the concentrating effect of the ELISA procedure. These preliminary results suggest that when adequate sample volumes are available, the immunostick ELISA can replace the mouse test for the diagnosis of botulism in wild birds.

Journal of Wildlife Diseases↗

USGS1980

Nest site and colony characteristics of wading birds in selected Atlantic Coast colonies

Nests of 5 species of wading birds were identified and marked during the breeding season at 6 locations from Massachusetts to North Carolina. At the end of the breeding season 12 characteristics of nest-site location were measured. Nest locations were mapped to examine dispersion and nearest neighbor relationships. Multivariate analyses were used to describe and compare sites and species. We found that variations in nest-sites between colonies were greater than between species; colonies differed mainly in the variety and size of vegetation; birds preferred to nest in vegetation that offered relatively stable nest-sites; and the dispersion of nests in the colonies was related to vegetative patterns. The interaction of these factors with the number of bird species and the abundance of birds in the colony seemed to determine whether nest-sites were stratified, segregated or randomly distributed.

The Wilson Bulletin↗

USGS2003

Response of vegetation and breeding birds to the removal of cattle on the San Pedro River, Arizona (U.S.A.)

In late 1987 cattle were removed from the San Pedro Riparian National Conservation Area ( NCA ) in southeastern Arizona ( U.S.A. ). We monitored vegetation density and abundance of birds during the breeding season during 1986a??1990 in riparian, mesquite grassland, and Chihuahuan desert-scrub communities in the NCA. The density of herbaceous vegetation increased four- to six-fold in riparian and mesquite grassland communities. Little change occurred in herbaceous vegetation in desert scrub, or in the density of shrubs or trees in any of the communities. Of 61 bird species for which sufficient data were collected, mean detections per kilometer increased for 42 species, 26 significantly, and decreased for 19 species, 8 significantly. The number of individuals of all avian species detected on surveys increased each year from 103/kilometer in 1986 to 221/kilometer in 1991, an average annual increase of 23% ( p < 0.001 ). The largest increases occurred in riparian species, open-cup nesters, Neotropical migrants, and insectivores. Species of the Chihuahuan desert-scrub, in which vegetation changed the least, showed the smallest increases. Only a few of the species showed increasing regional trends for the same period, as demonstrated by the North American Breeding Bird Survey; thus, increases on the San Pedro Riparian NCA were likely caused by the change in local conditions, not by regional effects. Our results suggest that removing cattle from riparian areas in the southwestern United States can have profound benefits for breeding birds.

Conservation Biology↗

USGS2000

Bird community composition

Neotropical migrants are birds that breed in North America and winter primarily in Central and South America. Long-term population studies of birds in the Eastern United States indicated declines of some forest-dwelling birds, many of which winter in the Neotropics (Peterjohn and others 1995). These declines were attributed to loss of wintering and breeding habitat due to deforestation and fragmentation, respectively. Many species of Nearctic migrants--birds that breed in the northern regions of North America and winter in the Southern United States--are also experiencing population declines. Because large areas of undistrubed, older, bottomland hardwood forests oftern contain large numbers of habitat specialists, including forest-interior neotropical migrants and wintering Nearctic migrants, these forests may be critical in maintaining avian diversity. This study had two primary objectivs: (1) to create a baseline data set that can be used as a standard against which other bottomland hardwood forests can be compared, and (2) to establish long-term monitoring stations during both breeding and wintering seasons to discern population trends of avian species using bottomland hardwood forests.

Book chapter↗

USGS1996

A land manager's guide to point counts of birds in the Southeast

Current widespread concern for the status of neotropical migratory birds has sparked interest in techniques for inventorying and monitoring populations of these and other birds in southeastern forest habitats. The present guide gives detailed instructions for conducting point counts of birds. It further presents a detailed methodology for the design and conduct of inventorial and monitoring surveys based on point counts, including discussion of sample size determination, distribution of counts among habitats, cooperation among neighboring land managers, vegetation sampling, standard data format, and other topics. Appendices provide additional information, making this guide a stand-alone text for managers interested in developing inventories of bird populations on their lands.

General Technical Report↗

USGS1969

Tissue residues of dieldrin in relation to mortality in birds and mammals

An experiment was performed with Coturnix to learn what residue levels were indicative of death from dieldrin poisoning. Birds were fed diets containing 250, 50, 10, and 2 ppm dieldrin for periods up to 158 days. The dieldrin was 95% pure HEOD, which is 1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6, 7.epoxy. l,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-l,4-endo,exo-5,8- dimethanonaphthalene. When half of a group was dead, the other half was sacrificed for comparison of residues in dead and survivors. Dosage levels controlled time to death, but did not control residue levels in the dead. Residues in liver and carcass proved to be misleading and complicated by changes in lipid content. Brain residues correlated well with death although residues in dead and survivors overlapped. Brain residues of animals killed by dieldrin in the field and in other experiments are listed. Data agree in general for several species of birds and mammals. There is evidence, however, for species differences in average lethal brain residues. It is concluded that brain residues of 4 or 5 ppm (wet weight) or higher indicate that the animal was in the known danger zone and may have died from dieldrin. Brain residues averaged lower in wild than in experimental animals. Possible explanations include species differences, more stress and exertion in the wild, and overrepresentation in the field series of individuals that will die with low but lethal brain residues. The latter is supported by the fact that the first Coturnix to die in each sex and treatment group had the lowest brain residue of its group. Birds receiving 2 ppm dieldrin, and some receiving 10 ppm, were able to maintain low brain residues throughout the experiment. However, birds of the 10 ppm group could withstand little stress and mobilization of toxicant, for a few micrograms in the brain were lethal and bodies contained hundreds or thousands of micrograms.

Book chapter↗

USGS1981

The North American Breeding Bird Survey

A brief history of the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) and a discussion of the technique are presented. The approximately 2000 random roadside routes conducted yearly during the breeding season throughout North America produce an enormous bank of data on distribution and abundance of breeding birds with great potential use. Data on about one million total birds of 500 species per year are on computer tape to facilitate accessibility and are available to any serious investigator. The BBS includes the advantages of wide geographic coverage, sampling of most habitat types, standardization of data collection, and a relatively simple format. The Survey is limited by placement of roads (e.g., marshes and rugged mountainous areas are not well sampled), traffic noise interference in some cases and preference of some bird species for roadside habitats. These and other problems and biases of the BBS are discussed. The uniformity of the technique allows for detecting changes in populations and for creation of maps of relative abundance. Examples of each are presented.

Book chapter↗

USGS1981

The role of observer bias in the North American Breeding Bird Survey

Ornithologists sampling breeding bird populations are subject to a number of biases in bird recognition and identification. Using Breeding Bird Survey data, these biases are examined qualitatively and quantitatively, and their effects on counts are evaluated. Differences in hearing ability and degree of expertise are the major observer biases considered. Other, more subtle influences are also discussed, including unfamiliar species, resolution, imagination, similar songs and attitude and condition of observers. In most cases, welltrained observers are comparable in ability and their differences contribute little beyond sampling error. However, just as hearing loss can affect results, so can an unprepared observer. These biases are important because they can reduce the credibility of any bird population sampling effort. Care is advised in choosing observers and in interpreting and using results when observers of variable competence are involved.

Book chapter↗

USGS1995

Population dynamics of neotropical migratory birds using agriculture-forest mosaics in Campeche, Mexico

In many areas of the tropics, forests are being converted to agriculture and other uses at a rapid rate. Previous research has documented that forest-breeding migratory birds are distributed across a wide variety of habitat types during midwinter. However, to evaluate the relative importance of different habitat types to wintering birds, we need to examine habitat-specific estimates of survival. During the winter of 1992-1993, mist nets, observations of individually marked birds and point counts were used to sample bird populations in a pasture-forest mosaic in southern Mexico. Sampling was conducted four times throughout the winter on a total of six grids. Twenty nets were run for two days in each grid. A total of 129 species were captured and 3,585 individuals banded. Neotropical migrants made up 31% of the species captured and 47% of the individuals banded. The banding data were used to estimate species richness for permanent and winter residents in different habitats and at different time periods. Capture-recapture models were used to estimate overwintering survival for selected species.

Book chapter↗

USGS1993

The influence of capture-recapture methodology on the evolution of the North American Bird Banding Program

Capture-recapture methodology has advanced greatly in the last twenty years and is now a major factor driving the continuing evolution of the North American bird banding program. Bird banding studies are becoming more scientific with improved study designs and analytical procedures. Researchers and managers are gaining more reliable knowledge which in turn betters the conservation of migratory birds. The advances in capture-recapture methodology have benefited gamebird studies primarily, but nongame bird studies will benefit similarly as they expand greatly in the next decade. Further theoretical development of capture-recapture methodology should be encouraged, and, to maximize benefits of the methodology, work on practical applications should be increased.

Book chapter↗