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USGS2004

Mineral commodity profiles: nitrogen

Overview -- Nitrogen (N) is an essential element of life and a part of all animal and plant proteins. As a part of the DNA and RNA molecules, nitrogen is an essential constituent of each individual's genetic blueprint. As an essential element in the chlorophyll molecule, nitrogen is vital to a plant's ability to photosynthesize. Some crop plants, such as alfalfa, peas, peanuts, and soybeans, can convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form by a process referred to as 'fixation.' Most of the nitrogen that is available for crop production, however, comes from decomposing animal and plant waste or from commercially produced fertilizers. Commercial fertilizers contain nitrogen in the form of ammonium and/or nitrate or in a form that is quickly converted to the ammonium or nitrate form once the fertilizer is applied to the soil. Ammonia is generally the source of nitrogen in fertilizers. Anhydrous ammonia is commercially produced by reacting nitrogen with hydrogen under high temperatures and pressures. The source of nitrogen is the atmosphere, which is almost 80 percent nitrogen. Hydrogen is derived from a variety of raw materials, which include water, and crude oil, coal, and natural gas hydrocarbons. Nitrogen-based fertilizers are produced from ammonia feedstocks through a variety of chemical processes. Small quantities of nitrates are produced from mineral resources principally in Chile. In 2002, anhydrous ammonia and other nitrogen materials were produced in more than 70 countries. Global ammonia production was 108 million metric tons (Mt) of contained nitrogen. With 28 percent of this total, China was the largest producer of ammonia. Asia contributed 46 percent of total world ammonia production, and countries of the former U.S.S.R. represented 13 percent. North America also produced 13 percent of the total; Western Europe, 9 percent; the Middle East, 7 percent; Central America and South America, 5 percent; Eastern Europe, 3 percent; and Africa and Oceania contributed the remaining 4 percent (International Fertilizer Industry Association, 2003b, p. 1-4). In 2002, world ammonia exports were 13.1 Mt of contained nitrogen. Trinidad and Tobago (22 percent), Russia (18 percent), Ukraine (10 percent), and Indonesia (7 percent) accounted for 57 percent of the world total. The largest importing regions were North America with 36 percent of the total followed by Western Europe with 23 percent and Asia with 22 percent (International Fertilizer Industry Association, 2003b, p. 5L-11). In 2002, world urea production was 51.4 Mt of contained nitrogen, and exports were 12.0 Mt of contained nitrogen. China and India, which were the two largest producing countries, accounted for 48 percent of world production. The United States and Canada produced about 10 percent of the total. Russia and Ukraine together accounted for 28 percent of total urea exports; Central America and South America, 27 percent; and Asia, North America, and Western Europe, 10 percent each. North America accounted for 36 percent of the total urea imports; Western Europe, 23 percent; and Asia, 22 percent (International Fertilizer Industry Association, 2003f, p. 1-15). Ammonia production capacity in North America and Western Europe is projected to decline through 2004, and capacity in other world regions is projected to increase. Fluctuating natural gas prices are mainly responsible for the capacity decline in North America. Ammonia production capacity is continuing to shift to world regions that have abundant sources of natural gas, and away from those where costs (raw material, labor, environmental compliance) are higher.

Open-File Report↗

USGS1969

Technologic gaps in exploration and exploitation of sub-sea mineral resources

Progress in marine hard mineral exploration and exploitation has been severely restricted by technologic gaps and the lack of discovery of deposits that can be exploited at a competitive price in the world markets. Immediate needs include improved techniques of placer drilling to permit more reliable evaluation of in situ deposits and improved systems of dredging and processing in greater depths of water and in heavier seas. New exploration techniques for locating and characterizing the subsurface deposits, and breakthroughs in low-cost methods for rapid detailed three-dimensional mapping of the seafloor relief similar to the photogrammetry breakthrough on land, would offer new incentives to industry. Advances in solution mining, in situ extraction techniques and rapid excavation with the possibilities of sub-sea entry, could eventually shift the emphasis in ocean mining from near shore placers to large-scale exploitation of deeply buried consolidated deposits.

Conference Paper↗

USGS2017

Tin

Tin (Sn) is one of the first metals to be used by humans. Almost without exception, tin is used as an alloy. Because of its hardening effect on copper, tin was used in bronze implements as early as 3500 B.C. The major uses of tin today are for cans and containers, construction materials, transportation materials, and solder. The predominant ore mineral of tin, by far, is cassiterite (SnO 2 ). In 2015, the world’s total estimated mine production of tin was 289,000 metric tons of contained tin. Total world reserves at the end of 2016 were estimated to be 4,700,000 metric tons. China held about 24 percent of the world’s tin reserves and accounted for 38 percent of the world’s 2015 production of tin. The proportion of scrap used in tin production is between 10 and 25 percent. Unlike many metals, tin recycling is relatively efficient, and the fraction of tin in discarded products that get recycled is greater than 50 percent. Only about 20 percent of the world’s identified tin resources occur as primary hydrothermal hard-rock veins, or lodes. These lodes contain predominantly high-temperature minerals and almost invariably occur in close association with silicic, peraluminous granites. About 80 percent of the world’s identified tin resources occur as unconsolidated secondary or placer deposits in riverbeds and valleys or on the sea floor. The largest concentration of both onshore and offshore placers is in the extensive tin belt of Southeast Asia, which stretches from China in the north, through Thailand, Burma (also referred to as Myanmar), and Malaysia, to the islands of Indonesia in the south. Furthermore, tin placers are almost always found closely allied to the granites from which they originate. Other countries with significant tin resources are Australia, Bolivia, and Brazil. Most hydrothermal tin deposits belong to what can be thought of as a superclass of porphyry-greisen deposits. The hydrothermal tin deposits are all characterized by a close spatial, temporal, and genetic association with highly differentiated, peraluminous porphyritic granite intrusions. The intrusions form pegmatites; disseminated ore; parallel or subparallel, greisen-bordered sheeted veins that either cross-cut the intrusion or are peripheral to it; skarns; and (or) limestone replacements that contain different amounts of cassiterite, molybdenite, and wolframite. The tectonic settings of tin-bearing granites are relatively well understood and of limited variety. Tin and tungsten deposits and their associated igneous rocks are found mainly in continental settings. Historically, prospecting for tin has been carried out by the time-honored methods of panning, drilling, trenching, and assaying. Geophysical and geochemical surveys have been employed to cover large areas more rapidly, isolating areas of possible tin deposits so that drilling can be more effective and less costly. Elemental concentrations and relationships of the lithophile elements, especially barium, lithium, niobium, potassium, rubidium, and zirconium, are the most reliable chemical indicators of ore-forming processes and tin-bearing potential. The average human diet includes an intake of about 10 milligrams per day of tin. Ingestion of tin in significantly greater amounts than 10 milligrams per day may lead to a stomach ache, anemia, and liver and kidney problems. Exposure to some organo-tin compounds can interfere with brain and nervous system function and, in severe cases, can cause death. Extended inhalation of tin oxide—an issue mainly for those people who work in the tin industry—results in a higher potential to develop stannosis, which is a mild disease of the lungs caused by the inhalation of tin-bearing dust. Inorganic tin is poorly absorbed by the body, and no evidence exists for the carcinogenicity of metallic tin and tin compounds in humans. Most placer tin deposits are mined by open pit and (or) dredging methods. Mining of alluvial placers in modern streambeds and riverbeds is likely to increase the amount of sediment delivered downstream. This, combined with potential diversion of rivers and streams, may negatively affect downstream ecosystems. Many of the placer deposits located in Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand are located offshore. Most offshore placer tin deposits are mined by dredging methods, which have the potential to negatively affect benthic, midwater, and pelagic ecosystems. In a congressionally mandated U.S. Department of Defense study of strategic minerals published in 2013, tin has the greatest shortfall amount (insufficient supply to meet demand) at \$416 million; this amount is more than twice that of antimony ($182 million), which is the strategic mineral with the next largest shortfall amount (U.S. Department of Defense, 2013). The United States imported 75 percent of its tin supply in 2015. During the period 2012–15, these imports were from, in descending order of amount imported, Peru, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Bolivia. A promising advancement concerning research into the origin of tin deposits is the recent development of a reliable method of analyzing tin isotopes in cassiterite. Although the mechanism of transport and deposition of tin is fairly well understood, the means by which tin is incorporated into the parent magma at the points of magma generation and ascent needs further investigation. Tin metallogenic provinces worldwide are well known. Consequently, any undiscovered tin deposits will likely be spatially close to known deposits or extensions of the same.

Professional Paper↗

USGS2020

Variation of lead isotopic composition and atomic weight in terrestrial materials (IUPAC Technical Report)

The isotopic composition and atomic weight of lead are variable in terrestrial materials because its three heaviest stable isotopes are stable end-products of the radioactive decay of uranium ( 238 U to 206 Pb; 235 U to 207 Pb) and thorium ( 232 Th to 208 Pb). The lightest stable isotope, 204 Pb, is primordial. These variations in isotope ratios and atomic weights provide useful information in many areas of science, including geochronology, archaeology, environmental studies, and forensic science. While elemental lead can serve as an abundant and homogeneous isotopic reference, deviations from the isotope ratios in other lead occurrences limit the accuracy with which a standard atomic weight can be given for lead. In a comprehensive review of several hundred publications and analyses of more than 8000 samples, published isotope data indicate that the lowest reported lead atomic weight of a normal terrestrial materials is 206.1462 ± 0.0028 ( k = 2), determined for a growth of the phosphate mineral monazite around a garnet relic from an Archean high-grade metamorphic terrain in north-western Scotland, which contains mostly 206 Pb and almost no 204 Pb. The highest published lead atomic weight is 207.9351 ± 0.0005 ( k = 2) for monazite from a micro-inclusion in a garnet relic, also from a high-grade metamorphic terrain in north-western Scotland, which contains almost pure radiogenic 208 Pb. When expressed as an interval, the lead atomic weight is [206.14, 207.94]. It is proposed that a value of 207.2 be adopted for the single lead atomic-weight value for education, commerce, and industry, corresponding to previously published conventional atomic-weight values.

Pure and Applied Chemistry↗

USGS2020

Research is needed to inform environmental management of hydrothermally inactive and extinct polymetallic sulfide (PMS) deposits

Polymetallic sulfide (PMS) deposits produced at hydrothermal vents in the deep sea are of potential interest to miners. Hydrothermally active sulfide ecosystems are valued for the extraordinary chemosynthetic communities that they support. Many countries, including Canada, Portugal, and the United States, protect vent ecosystems in their Exclusive Economic Zones. When hydrothermal activity ceases temporarily (dormancy) or permanently (extinction), the habitat and associated ecosystem change dramatically. Until recently, so-called “inactive sulfide” habitats, either dormant or extinct, received little attention from biologists. However, the need for environmental management of deep-sea mining places new imperatives for building scientific understanding of the structure and function of inactive PMS deposits. This paper calls for actions of the scientific community and the emergent seabed mining industry to i) undertake fundamental ecological descriptions and study of ecosystem functions and services associated with hydrothermally inactive PMS deposits, ii) evaluate potential environmental risks to ecosystems of inactive PMS deposits through research, and iii) identify environmental management needs that may enable mining of inactive PMS deposits. Mining of some extinct PMS deposits may have reduced environmental risk compared to other seabed mining activities, but this must be validated through scientific research on a case-by-case basis.

Marine Policy↗

USGS1994

Hydrogeology of the Chickasaw National Recreation Area, Murray County, Oklahoma

The Travertine District (Park) of the Chickasaw National Recreation Area, operated and maintained by the National Park Service, is near the City of Sulphur in south-central Oklahoma. The Park was established in 1902 because of its unique hydrologic setting, which includes Rock Creek, Travertine Creek, numerous mineralized and freshwater springs, and a dense cover of riparian vegetation. Since the turn of the century several flowing artesian wells have been drilled within and adjacent to the Park. Discharge from many of these springs and the numbers of flowing wells have declined substantially during the past 86 years. To determine the cause of these declines, a better understanding of the hydrologic system must be obtained. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National Park Service, has appraised hydrologic information obtained for the Park from several studies conducted during 1902-87. The principal geologic units referred to in this report are the Arbuckle Group and the overlying Simpson Group. These rocks are of Upper Cambrian to Middle Ordovician age and are composed of dolomitic limestone, with some sandstones and shales in the Simpson Group. Surface geologic maps give a general understanding of the regional subsurface geology, but information about the subsurface geology within the Park is poor. The Simpson and Arbuckle aquifers are the principal aquifers in the study area. The two aquifers are not differentiated readily in some parts of the study area because of the similarity of the Simpson and Arbuckle rocks; thus, both water-bearing units are referred to frequently as the Arbuckle-Simpson aquifer. The aquifers are confined under the Park, but are unconfined east and south of the Park. Precipitation on the outcrop area of the Arbuckle aquifer northeast and east of the Park recharges the freshwater springs (Antelope and Buffalo Springs) near the east boundary of the Park. The source of water from mineralized springs located in the central part of the Park, and flowing wells within and north of the Park, is believed to be a mix of waters from rocks of the Arbuckle and Simpson Groups. The source of water from two highly mineralized springs, Bromide and Medicine, that ceased to flow in the early 1970’s is believed to be from the Simpson Group. Water-quality characteristics reflect the sources of ground water in the study area. The highly mineralized springs near the western end of the Park are a sodium chloride type with dissolved solids greater than 4,500 mg/L. The freshwater springs near the eastern end of the Park are a calcium bicarbonate type with total dissolved solids of less than 400 mg/L. Flow from the artesian wells has declined substantially during the past 86 years and the wells are estimated to currently discharge only about 10 percent of the total flow reported in 1939. The depletion is believed to be caused by a gradual lowering of the hydraulic head within the aquifer. The influence on the hydrologic system of local municipal and industrial pumping from the Arbuckle-Simpson aquifer is difficult to discern because the system is much more sensitive to precipitation than to pumpage. Ground-water levels and spring flows in this region respond rapidly to precipitation. The effects of withdrawals from the City of Sulphur and Oklahoma Gas and Electric Company power-plant water-well fields are not discernible at wells and springs. The hydrologic system may be influenced by pumping, particularly during extended dry periods of several years, but the impact of pumping on the system cannot be determined without further investigation.

Oklahoma↗

USGS1976

Discovery of natural resources

Mankind will continue to need ores of more or less the types and grades used today to supply its needs for new mineral raw materials, at least until fusion or some other relatively cheap, inexhaustible energy source is developed. Most deposits being mined today were exposed at the surface or found by relatively simple geophysical or other prospecting techniques, but many of these will be depleted in the foreseeable future. The discovery of deeper or less obvious deposits to replace them will require the conjunction of science and technology to deduce the laws that governed the concentration of elements into ores and to detect and evaluate the evidence of their whereabouts. Great theoretical advances are being made to explain the origins of ore deposits and understand the general reasons for their localization. These advances have unquestionable value for exploration. Even a large deposit is, however, very small, and, with few exceptions, it was formed under conditions that have long since ceased to exist. The explorationist must suppress a great deal of "noise" to read and interpret correctly the "signals" that can define targets and guide the drilling required to find it. Is enough being done to ensure the long-term availability of mineral raw materials? The answer is probably no, in view of the expanding consumption and the difficulty of finding new deposits, but ingenuity, persistence, and continued development of new methods and tools to add to those already at hand should put off the day of "doing without" for many years. The possibility of resource exhaustion, especially in view of the long and increasing lead time needed to carry out basic field and laboratory studies in geology, geophysics, and geochemistry and to synthesize and analyze the information gained from them counsels against any letting down of our guard, however (17). Research and exploration by government, academia, and industry must be supported and encouraged; we cannot wait until an eleventh hour to mount a "crash program.".

Science↗

USGS2017

Use of raw materials in the United States from 1900 through 2014

The economic growth of an industrialized nation such as the United States requires raw materials for construction (buildings, bridges, highways, and so forth), defense, and processing and manufacture of goods and services. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the types and quantities of raw materials used have increased and changed significantly. This fact sheet quantifies the amounts of raw materials (other than food and fuel) that have been used in the U.S. economy annually for a period of 115 years, from 1900 through 2014. It provides a broad overview of the quantity (weight) of nonfood and nonfuel materials used in the economy and illustrates the use and significance of raw nonfuel minerals in particular as building blocks of society. These data have been compiled to help the public and policymakers understand the changing annual flow of raw materials put into use in the United States. Such information can be helpful in assessing the potential effects of materials use on the environment, assessing materials’ intensity of use, and examining the role that these materials play in the economy. The data presented indicate the substitution and shift in materials usage from renewable to nonrenewable materials during the 20th century. The disaggregated quantities by commodity (not shown in this fact sheet) may be tested against supply adequacy and end of life issues.

Fact Sheet↗

USGS2017

Selenium

Selenium (Se) was discovered in 1817 in pyrite from copper mines in Sweden. It is a trace element in Earth’s crust, with an abundance of three to seven orders of magnitude less than the major rock-forming elements. Commercial use of selenium began in the United States in 1910, when it was used as a pigment for paints, ceramic glazes, and red glass. Since that time, it has had many other economic uses—notably, in the 1930s and 1940s, when it was used in rectifiers (which change alternating current to direct current), and in the 1960s, when it began to be used in the liner of photocopier drums. In the 21st century, other compounds have replaced selenium in these older products; modern uses for selenium include energy-efficient windows that limit heat transfer and thin-film photovoltaic cells that convert solar energy into electricity. In Earth’s crust, selenium is found as selenide minerals, selenate and selenite salts, and as substitution for sulfur in sulfide minerals. It is the sulfide minerals, most commonly those in porphyry copper deposits, that provide the bulk of the selenium produced for the international commodity market. Selenium is obtained as a byproduct of copper refining and recovered from the anode slimes generated in electrolytic production of copper. Because of this, the countries that have the largest resources and (or) reserves of copper also have the largest resources and (or) reserves of selenium. Because selenium occurs naturally in Earth’s crust, its presence in air, water, and soil results from both geologic reactions and human activity. Selenium is found concentrated naturally in soils that overlie bedrock with high selenium concentrations. Selenium mining, processing, use in industrial and agricultural applications, and disposal may all contribute selenium to the environment. A well-known case of selenium contamination from agricultural practices was discovered in 1983 in the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge in California. There, waters draining from agricultural fields created wetlands with high concentrations of dissolved selenium in the water. The selenium was taken up by aquatic wildlife and caused massive numbers of embryonic deformities and deaths. Regulatory agencies have since worked to safeguard ecological and human health by creating environmental exposure guidelines based upon selenium concentrations in water and in fish tissue. Any attempt to regulate selenium concentrations requires a delicate balance because selenium occurs naturally and is also a vital nutrient for the health of wildlife, domestic stock, and humans. Selenium is commonly added as a vitamin to animal feed, and in some regions of the United States and the world, it is added as an amendment to soils for uptake by agricultural crops. The important role of selenium in economic products, energy supply, agriculture, and health will continue for well into the future. The challenge to society is to balance the benefits of selenium use with the environmental consequences of its extraction. Increased understanding of the elemental cycle of selenium in the earth may lead to new (or unconventional) sources of selenium, the discovery of new methods of extraction, and new technologies for minimizing the transfer of selenium from rock to biota, so to protect environmental and human health.

Professional Paper↗

USGS2014

Assessment of ethylene dibromide, dibromochloropropane, other volatile organic compounds, radium isotopes, radon, and inorganic compounds in groundwater and spring water from the Crouch Branch and McQueen Branch aquifers near McBee, South Carolina, 2010-2012

Public-supply wells near the rural town of McBee, in southwestern Chesterfield County, South Carolina, have provided potable water to more than 35,000 residents throughout Chesterfield County since the early 1990s. Groundwater samples collected between 2002 and 2008 in the McBee area by South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (DHEC) officials indicated that groundwater from two public-supply wells was characterized by the anthropogenic compounds ethylene dibromide (EDB) and dibromochloropropane (DBCP) at concentrations that exceeded their respective maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWR). Groundwater samples from all public-supply wells in the McBee area were characterized by the naturally occurring isotopes of radium-226 and radium-228 at concentrations that approached, and in one well exceeded, the MCL for the combined isotopes. The local water utility installed granulated activated carbon filtration units at the two EDB- and DBCP-contaminated wells and has, since 2011, shut down these two wells. Groundwater pumped by the remaining public-supply wells is currently (2014) centrally treated at a water-filtration plant. To assess the occurrence, distribution, and potential sources of the anthropogenic and naturally occurring compounds detected in groundwater in the McBee area, samples of groundwater and spring water were collected from public-supply, domestic-supply, agricultural-supply, and monitoring wells and springs, respectively, between 2010 and 2012 by the U.S. Geological Survey. The water samples were analyzed for concentrations of EDB, DBCP, other volatile organic compounds (VOCs), radium-226 and radium-228, radon, and inorganic compounds. All wells sampled were screened in the shallow Crouch Branch aquifer, the deeper McQueen Branch aquifer, or, for most public-supply wells, both aquifers. In areas where no wells existed or wells could not be installed, passive samplers that adsorb EDB, DBCP, and various VOCs, were installed in the shallow subsurface. A representative groundwater flow pathway to each public supply well and selected other wells was determined by using a calibrated three-dimensional groundwater-flow model of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Chesterfield County and particle-tracking analysis. The aerial extent of the groundwater flow pathway to public-supply wells was mapped by using chlorofluorocarbon-concentration based, apparent-age dates of the groundwater. The water-quality data collected between 2010 and 2012, in conjunction with groundwater flow pathways and historical aerial photographs of land uses near McBee, indicate an area where EDB-, DBCP-, 1,2-dichloropropane-, 1,3-dichloropropane-, and carbon disulfide-contaminated groundwater exists in the Crouch Branch aquifer in the Cedar Creek Basin and north of McBee and is most likely related to the past use of these compounds between the early 1900s and the 1980s as soil fumigants in predominately agricultural areas north of McBee. The highest EDB concentration detected (18.6 micrograms per liter) during the 3-year study was in a groundwater sample from an agricultural-supply well located north of McBee. Other VOCs, such as dichloromethane and 1,1,2-trichloroethane, also were detected in groundwater samples from this EDB-contaminated agricultural-supply well but are from unknown source(s). The fact that the agricultural area north of McBee is located in a recharge area for the Crouch Branch aquifer most likely facilitated the groundwater contamination in this area. DBCP-contaminated groundwater detected in three public-supply wells south of McBee in the deeper McQueen Branch aquifer appears to be related to past soil fumigation practices that used DBCP in agricultural areas located south of McBee. One of the three DBCP-contaminated public-supply wells also contained EDB, most likely present in groundwater due to the release of leaded gasolines that contained EDB as a fuel additive between the 1940s and 1970s. A gasoline-source of EDB, rather than a soil-fumigation source, is supported by the co-detection in groundwater from the well of 1,2-dichloroethane, a lead scavenger compound also added to leaded gasoline. Groundwater pumped from two public-supply wells located within and to the east of the McBee town limits and one domestic-supply well east of McBee was characterized by the detection of 1,1-dichloroethane, trichloroethylene, 1,1-dichloroethylene, and perchloroethylene. Groundwater flow pathways determined for these wells indicate that the potential source(s) of these compounds detected in one public-supply well and the domestic-supply well may be located within the McBee town limits, and that the potential source(s) of these compounds detected in the public-supply well to the east of McBee may be located in an area north of McBee formerly used for agriculture, but used for industry since at least the 1970s. Radium isotopes (defined in this study as the sum of radium-226 and radium-228 concentrations) and radon were detected in all wells sampled in the McBee area between 2010 and 2012. Wells characterized by radium isotope concentrations in groundwater that exceeded the MCL of 5.0 picocuries per liter were also characterized by specific conductance values greater than 30 microsiemens per centimeter and clustered north of McBee in a predominately agricultural area, and in agricultural and urban areas located within and east of McBee. The elevated specific conductance values measured in groundwater from these wells most likely are due to recharge by water mineralized by fertilizer application in agricultural areas, or due to the recharge by water mineralized by septic-tank drain-field effluent near urban areas. Radon was detected in groundwater from all wells sampled, and radon concentrations in groundwater from three monitoring wells exceeded the proposed MCL of 300 picocuries per liter. Concentrations of uranium in groundwater in the McBee area increased with increased groundwater-sample depth, most likely due to the proximity of the sample-collection location to basement rock that contains uranium-bearing minerals.

South Carolina↗

USGS1976

Summary of geology and ground-water resources of Passaic County, New Jersey

Ground water in Passaic County occurs in intergranular openings of unconsolidated stratified deposits of Quaternary age and in joints and fractures in consolidated rocks of Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Triassic age. The Brunswick Formation of Triassic age is the most important aquifer in the southeastern one-third of Passaic County. Reported yields of public supply and industrial wells range from 50 to 510 gallons per minute (3 to 32 litres per second) and the median yield is 130 gallons per minute (8 litres per second). Most of these wells are 200 to 400 feet (61 to 122 metres) deep. The median yield of all public supply and industrial wells over 300 feet (91 metres) deep and 8 inches (203 millimetres) or larger in diameter is 230 gallons per minute (15 litres per second). Crystalline rocks of Precambrian age are the major source of ground water for domestic use in the northwestern two-thirds of Passaic County. Reported well yields range from 1 to 200 gallons per minute (.06 to 13 litres per second). The median reported yield of domestic wells is 5 gallons per minute (.31 litres per second) and that of public supply wells is 30 gallons per minute (2 litres per second). Other consolidated rocks--rocks of Paleozoic age and the Watchung Basalt of Traissic age--are utilized primarily for domestic water supplies in Passaic County. Reported yields of wells tapping the Paleozoic rocks range from less than 1 to 35 gallons per minute (.06 to 2 litres per second) and the median yield is 10 gallons per minute (.63 litres per second). Reported yields of domestic wells tapping the Watchung Basalt range from less than 1 to 40 gallons per minute (.06 to 3 litres per second) and the median yield is 12 gallons per minute (.76 litres per second). However, reported yields of nine industrial and commercial wells range from 50 to 180 gallons per minute (3 to 11 litres per second). Unconsolidated stratified deposits of Quaternary age are locally an important source of ground water for public supply and industrial use in parts of Passaic County. These deposits have not been extensively explored but are potentially an important source of ground water for future development. Reported yields of wells tapping the stratified deposits range from 4 to 920 gallons per minute (.25 to 58 litres per second). The median reported yield of domestic wells is 16 gallons per minute (1 litre per second) and that of public supply and industrial wells is 130 gallons per minute (8 litres per second. Depths of wells depend upon the thickness of the deposits. Reported depths range from 22 to 170 feet (7 to 52 metres). The quality of ground water in Passaic County varies from one aquifer to another. Water from the Precambrian rocks is soft to moderately hard (34 to 104 milligrams per litre) and is low in dissolved solids (66 to 159 milligrams per litre). Water from the Brunswick Formation is moderately hard to very hard (89 to 540 milligrams per litre). The dissolved solids content ranges from 129 to 563 milligrams per litre). The occurrence of more highly mineralized water at depth in the Brunswick Formation is indicated by an analysis, made in 1885, of 16,000 milligrams per litre of dissolved solids at a depth of 2,050 feet (625 metres) in a well in Paterson. Water from two wells tapping the Quaternary deposits is moderately hard (65 and 83 milligrams per litre) and has dissolved solids contents of 122 and 133 milligrams per litre). Water use from both surface and ground-water supplies in Passaic County averaged about 106 million gallons per day (4.6 cubic metres per second) in 1965. Ground water probably accounts for 5 to 10 percent of this total. Ground-water pumpage by the major public supply companies in the county has increased from 2.1 million gallons per day (.09 cubic metres per second) in 1951 to 4.39 million gallons per day (.19 cubic metres per second) in 1968. About 80 percent of the 4.39 million gallons per day (.19 cubic metres per second) was from wells tapping the Brunswick Formation in the southern part of the county.

New Jersey↗

USGS2010

Radionuclides, trace elements, and radium residence in phosphogypsum of Jordan

Voluminous stockpiles of phosphogypsum (PG) generated during the wet process production of phosphoric acid are stored at many sites around the world and pose problems for their safe storage, disposal, or utilization. A major concern is the elevated concentration of long-lived 226Ra (half-life = 1,600 years) inherited from the processed phosphate rock. Knowledge of the abundance and mode-of-occurrence of radium (Ra) in PG is critical for accurate prediction of Ra leachability and radon (Rn) emanation, and for prediction of radiation-exposure pathways to workers and to the public. The mean (??SD) of 226Ra concentrations in ten samples of Jordan PG is 601 ?? 98 Bq/kg, which falls near the midrange of values reported for PG samples collected worldwide. Jordan PG generally shows no analytically significant enrichment (< 10%) of 226Ra in the finer (< 53 ??m) grain size fraction. Phosphogypsum samples collected from two industrial sites with different sources of phosphate rock feedstock show consistent differences in concentration of 226Ra and rare earth elements, and also consistent trends of enrichment in these elements with increasing age of PG. Water-insoluble residues from Jordan PG constitute <10% of PG mass but contain 30-65% of the 226Ra. 226Ra correlates closely with Ba in the water-insoluble residues. Uniformly tiny (< 10 ??m) grains of barite (barium sulfate) observed with scanning electron microscopy have crystal morphologies that indicate their formation during the wet process. Barite is a well-documented and efficient scavenger of Ra from solution and is also very insoluble in water and mineral acids. Radium-bearing barite in PG influences the environmental mobility of radium and the radiation-exposure pathways near PG stockpiles. ?? 2010 US Government.

Environmental Geochemistry and Health↗

USGS2025

Extremophile hotspots linked to containerized industrial waste dumping in a deep-sea basin

Decaying barrels on the seafloor linked to DDT contamination have raised concerns about the public health implications of decades old industrial waste dumped off the coast of Los Angeles. To explore their contents, we collected sediment cores perpendicular to five deep-sea barrels. The concentration of DDT and its breakdown products were highly elevated relative to control sites yet did not vary with distance from the barrels, suggesting that they were not associated with the contamination. Sediment cores collected through white halos surrounding three barrels were enriched in calcite and had elevated pH. The associated microbial communities were low diversity and dominated by alkalophilic bacteria with metagenome-assembled genomes adapted to high pH. A solid concretion sampled between a white halo and barrel was composed of brucite, a magnesium hydroxide mineral that forms at high pH. Based on these findings, we postulate that leakage of containerized alkaline waste triggered the formation of mineral concretions that are slowly dissolving and raising the pH of the surrounding sediment pore water. This selects for taxa adapted to extreme alkalinity and drives the precipitation of “anthropogenic” carbonates forming white halos, which serve as a visual identifier of barrels that contained alkaline waste. Remarkably, containerized alkaline waste discarded >50 years ago represents a persistent pollutant creating localized mineral formations and microbial communities that resemble those observed at some hydrothermal systems. These formations were observed at one-third of the visually identified barrels in the San Pedro Basin and have unforeseen, long-term consequences for benthic communities in the region.

California↗

USGS1998

Geologic studies in Alaska by the U.S. Geological Survey, 1996

This collection of 12 papers continues the annual series of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) reports on geologic investigations in Alaska. The annual volume presents results from new or ongoing studies in Alaska that are of interest to scientists in academia, industry, land and resource managers, and the general public. The Geological Studies in Alaska volume reports the results of studies that cover a broad spectrum of earth science topics from many parts of the state (fig. 1). The papers in this volume are organized under the topics Environment and Climate, Resources, and Geologic Framework, in order to reflect the objectives and scope of USGS programs that are currently active in Alaska. Environmental studies are the focus of two articles in this volume: One study addresses the relation between glaciers and aquatic habitat on the Kenai River and another study evaluates the geochemistry of water draining chromite deposits in Alaska. Two papers address mineral resources in southwestern Alaska including a geochemical study of the Fortyseven Creek prospect and a geological and geochemical study of the Stuyahok area. Eight geologic framework studies apply a variety of techniques to a wide range of subjects throughout Alaska, including biostratigraphy, geochemistry, geochronology, paleomagnetism, sedimentology, and tectonics. Two bibliographies at the end of the volume list reports about Alaska in USGS publications released in 1996 and reports about Alaska by USGS authors in non-USGS publications in 1996.

Alaska↗

USGS2025

Factors affecting the distribution of water-bearing fractures in the bedrock aquifers of West Virginia

Bedrock aquifers cover 23,601 square miles within the State of West Virginia and comprise 97.4 percent of the surficial area within the State; the remaining 2.6 percent (621 square miles) consists of alluvial sand-and-gravel and glacial outwash aquifers bordering the State’s major rivers. While West Virginia’s alluvial aquifers have been studied extensively, bedrock aquifers have only been characterized for studies completed in a few areas in Jefferson, McDowell, and Monroe Counties. Bedrock aquifers are water supplies for public supply, agriculture, industry, and residential homeowner use. In this study, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection Division of Water and Waste Management, provides a statewide assessment of the occurrence and distribution of fractures within bedrock aquifers of the State and the various topographic, physiographic, and lithologic influences controlling the occurrence and distribution of bedrock fractures. The results of this study provide an increased understanding of the distribution of fractures in bedrock aquifers in West Virginia and help to verify trends that have been suspected for many years but were never well documented or verified by data. The results confirmed that the density of fractures and those that were determined to be water bearing decrease significantly with depth. A statistically significant difference in the density of fractures was observed at a depth of 215 feet for wells in the Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province’s and in the Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province’s aquifers; a higher density of fractures and water-bearing fractures were above a depth of 215 feet than below that depth. This is an important consideration when drilling wells for residential, commercial, industrial, or agricultural water supply. Abandoned underground coal mines are commonly believed to form large pools of water in the interconnected mine entries in abandoned room and pillar coal mines. Such pools of water can and do exist in abandoned underground coal mines, but many mines lack open entries and are held up by overburden strata and pillars that can collapse and form aquifers comprised of vast interconnected rubble zones (gob), especially in older mines. Data assessed for this study showed that shale-corrected values of effective porosity for limestone aquifers in West Virginia had a median value of 2 percent and an average value of 4 percent and generally are mineralized with low effective porosity. Argillaceous or sandy limestone has a median shale-corrected porosity of 4 percent and an average shale-corrected porosity of 5 percent. The median and average shale-corrected porosity of sandstone aquifers was estimated to be 14 percent, but the median shale-corrected porosity for argillaceous or calcareous sandstone was 5 percent and the average shale-corrected porosity for argillaceous or calcareous sandstone was 6 percent. Even though shale has a relatively high total sonic porosity compared to other lithologies, shale and siltstone had relatively low shale-corrected porosity, ranging from 0 to 2 percent. Well yields were previously documented to be highest in valley settings, lowest on hilltops, and intermediate on hillsides. Transmissivity data provided by this study confirm this general pattern within the Appalachian Plateaus Province; however, the Valley and Ridge Province does not follow this pattern. While still lowest on hilltop settings, the highest well yields were in hillside settings. The trend for the Valley and Ridge Province was likely skewed because of 9 high-yield wells specifically targeting deeper thin limestone units, such as the Tonoloway and Helderberg Limestones, at depths with transmissivity in excess of 2,000 feet squared per day in Mineral County, West Virginia, or targeting karst aquifers in Berkeley, Jefferson, or Greenbrier Counties, West Virginia. Finally, water-bearing fractures have been hypothesized to comprise a small number of all fractures within a typical bedrock well in West Virginia. Data collected for this study support this theory. A total of 3,403 fractures were identified during this study; 3,151 (92.6 percent) of those fractures are low-transmissive, and only 252 (7.4 percent) fractures are water-bearing. Even though a well may contain many fractures, less than 8 percent are considered water-bearing fractures.

West Virginia↗

USGS2020

Energy and minerals division tight oil and gas committee: Activities and commodity report for 2019-2020

In 2019, total daily tight oil and gas production increased in the United States month over month, with annualized growth of 14% for oil and 12% for gas. Those gains leveled off in the first quarter of 2020 due to aggressive price competition and increases in international production. Then came the pandemic with a substantially larger dose of economic turmoil, driving down demand due in part to shelter in place orders and safety concerns around travel. Between March and May, tight oil and gas production dropped by nearly 2 million bpd and almost 5 Bcf/day before beginning to recover. Production has continued to increase for the most part through the second half of 2020, but drilling remains subdued throughout most of the U.S. and uncertainty around long term demand along with the current price environment and general state of the economy has contributed to layoffs throughout the industry. Some shale-gas production has declined recently, but a few areas have seen expansion due to construction of LNG facilities along the East Coast of the U.S. (e.g., the Haynesville Formation). Current U.S. shale-gas production is still higher now than in 2019, with daily production of almost 71 Bcf as of October 2020 driven in large part by increased production from the Marcellus Shale in the Appalachian Basin and shales within the Permian Basin. Shale liquids production is down by around a million bpd to approximately 7.1 million (September 2020; U.S. EIA) from pre-pandemic production levels at the end of 2019 and beginning of 2020. Tight oil production remains dominated by plays in the Permian Basin as well as the Bakken and Eagle Ford Formations. On the development and production front, new enhanced oil recovery approaches for tight shale reservoirs are being more widely implemented. Natural gas or CO2 injection is currently being utilized in the Bakken Formation, Eagle Ford Formation, Anadarko Basin, and the Permian Basin to optimize injection sequences and boost recovery. Refracturing of existing wells to reduce drilling costs, improve production, and prolong well productive life has also begun to occur more widely in developed plays. International interest in exploiting hydrocarbons from unconventional reservoirs continues to develop, with active exploration projects on most continents. Europe remains relatively underexplored as compared to North America, although a total of 141 exploration and appraisal wells with a possible shale-gas exploration component have been spudded, including horizontal legs from vertical wells. Shale exploration has made a breakthrough in China with shale gas output in 2019 of 10 billion cubic meters (35.3 Bcf), 60% of which was produced from Sinopec’s Fuling Shale Gas field. Lacustrine shale oil exploration has also been successful in the Sichuan and Ordos Basins in central China, Junggar and Tarim Basins in northwest China, and Songliao Basin in north China, and Bohai Bay Basins in northeast China as of 2018. South America’s potential as an unconventional shale gas and oil province is mainly in Argentina and Brazil, where the production from Neuquen Basin’s tight shale of the Vaca Muerta Formation has been steadily increasing since 2016, but only 4% of the shale resource has been developed thus far. According to International Energy Agency’s report in 2013, Brazil holds the 9th largest unconventional gas reserves. Brazil has shale oil and gas potential in the Parana, Solimoes and Amazon Basins and is actively producing from the oil shale unit of the Irati Formation. In 2019, the Brazil energy ministry launched REATE 2020 to boost onshore investments that include the expectation of drilling an experimental unconventional well in the northeast region. For this inaugural report, the new AAPG EMD Tight Oil and Gas Committee (TO&G; formerly the Shale Gas & Liquids and Tight Gas Sands committees) has developed new commodity report requirements for contributors. This includes shorter annual reports focused on new developments, play concepts, along with the typical updates on production and new drilling in the play areas they cover. We are also asking contributors to collect background geologic and production related information into a document that summarizes important features of the plays they cover that will be stored on the TO&G webpage along with our commodity reports. TO&G is currently working to expand the number of contributors to cover more play areas and replace committee and advisory board members that have recently stepped down. Changes to committee leadership occurred in October as recent chairs transition to EMD elected positions.

Activities and Commodities Report↗

USGS2019

Status of three-dimensional geological mapping and modeling activities in the U.S. Geological Survey

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), created in 1879, is the national geological survey for the United States and the sole science agency within its cabinet-level bureau, the Department of the Interior. The USGS has a broad mission, including: serving the Nation by providing reliable scientific information to describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources; and enhance and protect quality of life. USGS scientific activities are organized around major topics, or Mission Areas, aligned with distinct science themes; three-dimensional (3-D) modelling typically supports research and project work within a specific Mission Area. The vastness, diversity, and complexity of the geological landscape of the United States has resulted in the creation of 3-D geological framework models that are local or regional in scale; a National-scale 3-D model is only beginning to evolve. This paper summarizes 3-D geological modeling at the USGS and does not discuss 3-D modeling that is conducted by other Federal agencies, state geological surveys, academia, or industry within the U.S. This paper updates and expands upon a similar status report of USGS 3-D modeling activities of Jacobsen et al. (2011).

Report↗

USGS2004

Mineral commodity profiles: Cadmium

Overview -- Cadmium is a soft, low-melting-point metal that has many uses. It is similar in abundance to antimony and bismuth and is the 63d element in order of crustal abundance. Cadmium is associated in nature with zinc (and, less closely, with lead and copper) and is extracted mainly as a byproduct of the mining and processing of zinc. In 2000, it was refined in 27 countries, of which the 8 largest accounted for two-thirds of world production. The United States was the third largest refiner after Japan and China. World production in 2000 was 19,700 metric tons (t) and U.S. production was 1,890 t. In the United States, one company in Illinois and another in Tennessee refined primary cadmium. A Pennsylvania company recovered cadmium from scrap, mainly spent nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries. The supply of cadmium in the world and in the United States appears to be adequate to meet future industrial needs; the United States has about 23 percent of the world reserve base.

Open-File Report↗