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At least 55 records · Page 3Linked to original sources
USGS2021

Developing bare-earth digital elevation models from structure-from-motion data on barrier islands

Unoccupied aerial systems can collect aerial imagery that can be used to develop structure-from-motion products with a temporal resolution well-suited to monitoring dynamic barrier island environments. However, topographic data created using photogrammetric techniques such as structure-from-motion represent the surface elevation including the vegetation canopy . Additional processing is required for estimating bare-earth elevation, which is critical for understanding the underlying geomorphology of these islands. In this study, we used a vegetation and elevation survey to produce bare-earth digital elevation models from structure-from-motion-derived elevation products for two sites on Dauphin Island, Alabama (USA). One site was exposed to high wave energy and included a mix of beach, dune, and barrier flat habitats that were dominated by supratidal/upland herbaceous vegetation. The second site was exposed to low wave energy and was dominated by intertidal marsh. Aerial imagery was collected in late fall of 2018 and spring of 2019. We tested several machine learning algorithms for predicting and removing elevation bias for vegetated areas using predictors that included spectral indices from unoccupied aerial systems-based multispectral imagery and landscape position information (e.g., relative topography and distance from shore). Models were developed for each site and season. We also explored how well the model from one season generalized to data from a different season for the same site. For developing initial digital surface models, we found that utilizing a minimum bin algorithm, as opposed to interpolation, led to lower elevation bias. For bias removal, Gaussian process regression performed the best and led to a root mean square error for the bare-earth digital elevation models of around 0.10 m for the high energy site and 0.15 m for the low energy site. Compared to the digital surface models, the root mean square error for the bare-earth digital elevation models was reduced by at least 29 percent for the high energy site and 69 percent for the low energy site. For all models, common predictors included surface elevation, vegetation greenness, and distance from the shoreline. The models produced comparable results when trained using data from a different season. The error estimates for all analyses were within published elevation standards for lidar data for vegetated areas. With calibration, this approach could be portable to other areas or data, such as aerial lidar (conventional or unoccupied), to provide an efficient and repeatable framework for monitoring geomorphology or provide baseline elevations for predicting changes to these environments under future conditions.

Alabama↗
USGS2016

Landscapes of West Africa: A window on a changing world

Our global ecosystem is and has always been complex, dynamic, and in constant flux. Science tells us how natural forces of enormous power have shaped and reshaped Earth’s surface, atmosphere, climate, and biota again and again since the planet’s beginnings about 4.5 billion years ago. For most of the planet’s history those environmental changes were the result of the interaction of natural processes such as geology and climate and were described on the geological time scale in epochs spanning millions of years. When humankind appeared on Earth around 200,000 years ago the influence of human activity on the environment must have been small and localized. The influence of scattered small groups of people on the global ecosystem would have been overwhelmed by the forces of natural systems (Steffen and others, 207). Human population would not grow to 50 million (about 0.7 percent of the Earth’s current population) for another 197,000 years. Population growth accelerated over the centuries that followed until the planet was adding more than that 50 million people every year. Our planet is now home to roughly 7.3 billion people and we are adding 1 million more people roughly every 4.8 days (US Census Bureau, 2011). Before 1950, no one on Earth had lived through a doubling of the human population, but now some people have experienced a tripling in their lifetime (Cohen, 2003).

Book↗
USGS2013

Next generation of global land cover characterization, mapping, and monitoring

Land cover change is increasingly affecting the biophysics, biogeochemistry, and biogeography of the Earth's surface and the atmosphere, with far-reaching consequences to human well-being. However, our scientific understanding of the distribution and dynamics of land cover and land cover change (LCLCC) is limited. Previous global land cover assessments performed using coarse spatial resolution (300 m–1 km) satellite data did not provide enough thematic detail or change information for global change studies and for resource management. High resolution (∼30 m) land cover characterization and monitoring is needed that permits detection of land change at the scale of most human activity and offers the increased flexibility of environmental model parameterization needed for global change studies. However, there are a number of challenges to overcome before producing such data sets including unavailability of consistent global coverage of satellite data, sheer volume of data, unavailability of timely and accurate training and validation data, difficulties in preparing image mosaics, and high performance computing requirements. Integration of remote sensing and information technology is needed for process automation and high-performance computing needs. Recent developments in these areas have created an opportunity for operational high resolution land cover mapping, and monitoring of the world. Here, we report and discuss these advancements and opportunities in producing the next generations of global land cover characterization, mapping, and monitoring at 30-m spatial resolution primarily in the context of United States, Group on Earth Observations Global 30 m land cover initiative (UGLC).

International Journal of Applied Earth Observation↗
USGS2008

Observations and a model of undertow over the inner continental shelf

Onshore volume transport (Stokes drift) due to surface gravity waves propagating toward the beach can result in a compensating Eulerian offshore flow in the surf zone referred to as undertow. Observed offshore flows indicate that wave-driven undertow extends well offshore of the surf zone, over the inner shelves of Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, and North Carolina. Theoretical estimates of the wave-driven offshore transport from linear wave theory and observed wave characteristics account for 50% or more of the observed offshore transport variance in water depths between 5 and 12 m, and reproduce the observed dependence on wave height and water depth. During weak winds, wave-driven cross-shelf velocity profiles over the inner shelf have maximum offshore flow (1–6 cm s −1 ) and vertical shear near the surface and weak flow and shear in the lower half of the water column. The observed offshore flow profiles do not resemble the parabolic profiles with maximum flow at middepth observed within the surf zone. Instead, the vertical structure is similar to the Stokes drift velocity profile but with the opposite direction. This vertical structure is consistent with a dynamical balance between the Coriolis force associated with the offshore flow and an along-shelf “Hasselmann wave stress” due to the influence of the earth’s rotation on surface gravity waves. The close agreement between the observed and modeled profiles provides compelling evidence for the importance of the Hasselmann wave stress in forcing oceanic flows. Summer profiles are more vertically sheared than either winter profiles or model profiles, for reasons that remain unclear.

Massachusetts, North Carolina↗
USGS2002

Characterization of the spatial variability of channel morphology

The spatial variability of two fundamental morphological variables is investigated for rivers having a wide range of discharge (five orders of magnitude). The variables, water-surface width and average depth, were measured at 58 to 888 equally spaced cross-sections in channel links (river reaches between major tributaries). These measurements provide data to characterize the two-dimensional structure of a channel link which is the fundamental unit of a channel network. The morphological variables have nearly log-normal probability distributions. A general relation was determined which relates the means of the log-transformed variables to the logarithm of discharge similar to previously published downstream hydraulic geometry relations. The spatial variability of the variables is described by two properties: (1) the coefficient of variation which was nearly constant (0.13-0.42) over a wide range of discharge; and (2) the integral length scale in the downstream direction which was approximately equal to one to two mean channel widths. The joint probability distribution of the morphological variables in the downstream direction was modelled as a first-order, bivariate autoregressive process. This model accounted for up to 76 per cent of the total variance. The two-dimensional morphological variables can be scaled such that the channel width-depth process is independent of discharge. The scaling properties will be valuable to modellers of both basin and channel dynamics. Published in 2002 John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.

Earth Surface Processes and Landforms↗
USGS2022

River channel response to invasive plant treatment across the American Southwest

Invasive riparian plants were introduced to the American Southwest in the early 19th century and contributed to regional trends of decreasing river channel width and migration rate in the 20th century. More recently, efforts to remove invasive riparian vegetation (IRV) have been widespread, especially since 1990. To what extent has IRV treatment reversed the earlier trend of channel narrowing and reduced dynamism? In this study, paired treated and untreated reaches at 15 sites along 13 rivers were compared before and after IRV treatment using repeat aerial imagery to assess long-term (~10-year) channel change due to treatment on a regional scale across the Southwest USA. We found that IRV treatment significantly increased channel width and floodplain destruction. Treated reaches had higher floodplain destruction than untreated reaches at 14 of 15 sites, and IRV treatment increased the rate of floodplain destruction by a median factor of 1.9. The effect of treatment increased with the stream power of the largest flow over the study period. Resolving observations of channel change into separate measures of floodplain destruction and formation provided more information on underlying processes than simple measurements of channel width and centerline migration rate. Restoration practitioners who perform IRV treatment projects often focus on wildlife or vegetation response; however, geomorphic processes should be considered in restoration planning because they drive aquatic habitat and vegetation dynamics, and because of the potential for damage to downstream infrastructure. Depending on the restoration goal, management practices can be used to enhance or minimize the increase in channel dynamism caused by IRV treatment.

Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, ↗
USGS2011

The dynamical core, physical parameterizations, and basic simulation characteristics of the atmospheric component AM3 of the GFDL global coupled model CM3

The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) has developed a coupled general circulation model (CM3) for the atmosphere, oceans, land, and sea ice. The goal of CM3 is to address emerging issues in climate change, including aerosol–cloud interactions, chemistry–climate interactions, and coupling between the troposphere and stratosphere. The model is also designed to serve as the physical system component of earth system models and models for decadal prediction in the near-term future—for example, through improved simulations in tropical land precipitation relative to earlier-generation GFDL models. This paper describes the dynamical core, physical parameterizations, and basic simulation characteristics of the atmospheric component (AM3) of this model. Relative to GFDL AM2, AM3 includes new treatments of deep and shallow cumulus convection, cloud droplet activation by aerosols, subgrid variability of stratiform vertical velocities for droplet activation, and atmospheric chemistry driven by emissions with advective, convective, and turbulent transport. AM3 employs a cubed-sphere implementation of a finite-volume dynamical core and is coupled to LM3, a new land model with ecosystem dynamics and hydrology. Its horizontal resolution is approximately 200 km, and its vertical resolution ranges approximately from 70 m near the earth’s surface to 1 to 1.5 km near the tropopause and 3 to 4 km in much of the stratosphere. Most basic circulation features in AM3 are simulated as realistically, or more so, as in AM2. In particular, dry biases have been reduced over South America. In coupled mode, the simulation of Arctic sea ice concentration has improved. AM3 aerosol optical depths, scattering properties, and surface clear-sky downward shortwave radiation are more realistic than in AM2. The simulation of marine stratocumulus decks remains problematic, as in AM2. The most intense 0.2% of precipitation rates occur less frequently in AM3 than observed. The last two decades of the twentieth century warm in CM3 by 0.32°C relative to 1881–1920. The Climate Research Unit (CRU) and Goddard Institute for Space Studies analyses of observations show warming of 0.56° and 0.52°C, respectively, over this period. CM3 includes anthropogenic cooling by aerosol–cloud interactions, and its warming by the late twentieth century is somewhat less realistic than in CM2.1, which warmed 0.66°C but did not include aerosol–cloud interactions. The improved simulation of the direct aerosol effect (apparent in surface clear-sky downward radiation) in CM3 evidently acts in concert with its simulation of cloud–aerosol interactions to limit greenhouse gas warming.

Journal of Climate↗
USGS2019

Basal stress equations for granular debris masses on smooth or discretized slopes

Knowledge of basal stresses is essential for analyzing slope stability and modeling the dynamics and erosive potential of debris flows and avalanches. Here we derive and test new algebraic formulas for calculating the shear stress τ and normal stress σ at the base of variable‐thickness granular debris masses in states of static or dynamic equilibrium on slopes. The formulas include a lateral pressure coefficient κ , but use of a fixed value κ = 0.7 yields predictions of σ that on average err by less than 3% and of τ that on average err by less than 13% in matching basal stresses measured in six large‐scale experiments involving wet debris masses with varying geometries and compositions. Much larger prediction errors result from use of infinite‐slope or shallow‐debris approximations. Specialized versions of the new formulas apply if basal topography is discretized and represented by a “staircase” function in a digital elevation model. Use of these formulas to assess static limiting equilibrium conditions shows that the apparent basal Coulomb friction angle ϕ tread of debris that engages friction acting on the horizontal surfaces (or “treads”) of a staircase sloping at an angle θ is generally described by tan ϕ tread = tan ( ϕ − θ )+ κ tan θ , where ϕ is the true basal friction angle of the same debris in contact with a uniformly sloping bed. Differences between the values of ϕ and ϕ tread can greatly influence the results of numerical simulations that use unsmoothed digital elevation model topography to calculate the stability or dynamics of debris masses on slopes.

Journal of Geophysical Research-Earth Surface↗
USGS2024

A novel surface energy balance method for thermal inertia studies of terrestrial analogs

Surface thermal inertia derived from satellite imagery offers a valuable tool for remotely mapping the physical structure and water content of planetary regolith. Efforts to quantify thermal inertia using surface temperatures on Earth, however, have consistently yielded large uncertainties and suffered from a lack of reproducibility. Unlike dry or airless bodies, Earth's abundant water and dense atmosphere lead to dynamic thermophysical conditions that are a greater challenge to model than on a world like Mars. In this work, an approach was developed using field experiments to inform and fine-tune a thermophysical model of terrestrial sediment and calculate an inherent thermal inertia value with higher precision and less initial knowledge of the sediment than has previously been achieved remotely on Earth. A thermal inertia derived for a basaltic tephra site in Northern Arizona was replicated within 1% between different field seasons, demonstrating reproducibility. Model-derived values were validated in situ by two different thermophysical field probes to within 8% of the measured mean values. Analog studies such as this hold the promise of improved interpretations of surface materials on Mars, and an accurate thermal model for Earth is the key step to enabling translation between the two worlds.

Earth and Space Science↗
USGS2020

Implementation of a surface water extent model in Cambodia using cloud-based remote sensing

Mapping surface water over time provides the spatially explicit information essential for hydroclimatic research focused on droughts and flooding. Hazard risk assessments and water management planning also rely on accurate, long-term measurements describing hydrologic fluctuations. Stream gages are a common measurement tool used to better understand flow and inundation dynamics, but gage networks are incomplete or non-existent in many parts of the world. In such instances, satellite imagery may provide the only data available to monitor surface water changes over time. Here, we describe an effort to extend the applicability of the USGS Dynamic Surface Water Extent (DSWE) model to non-US regions. We leverage the multi-decadal archive of the Landsat satellite in the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud-based computing platform to produce and analyze 372 monthly composite maps and 31 annual maps (January 1988–December 2018) in Cambodia, a flood-prone country in Southeast Asia that lacks a comprehensive stream gage network. DSWE relies on a series of spectral water indices and elevation data to classify water into four categories of water inundation. We compared model outputs to existing surface water maps and independently assessed DSWE accuracy at discrete dates across the time series. Despite considerable cloud obstruction and missing imagery across the monthly time series, the overall accuracy exceeded 85% for all annual tests. The DSWE model consistently mapped open water with high accuracy, and areas classified as “high confidence” water correlate well to other available maps at the country scale. Results in Cambodia suggest that extending DSWE globally using a cloud computing framework may benefit scientists, managers, and planners in a wide array of applications across the globe.

Remote Sensing↗
USGS2013

Projected future changes in vegetation in western North America in the 21st century

Rapid and broad-scale forest mortality associated with recent droughts, rising temperature, and insect outbreaks has been observed over western North America (NA). Climate models project additional future warming and increasing drought and water stress for this region. To assess future potential changes in vegetation distributions in western NA, the Community Earth System Model (CESM) coupled with its Dynamic Global Vegetation Model (DGVM) was used under the future A2 emissions scenario. To better span uncertainties in future climate, eight sea surface temperature (SST) projections provided by phase 3 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3) were employed as boundary conditions. There is a broad consensus among the simulations, despite differences in the simulated climate trajectories across the ensemble, that about half of the needleleaf evergreen tree coverage (from 24% to 11%) will disappear, coincident with a 14% (from 11% to 25%) increase in shrubs and grasses by the end of the twenty-first century in western NA, with most of the change occurring over the latter half of the twenty-first century. The net impact is a ~6 GtC or about 50% decrease in projected ecosystem carbon storage in this region. The findings suggest a potential for a widespread shift from tree-dominated landscapes to shrub and grass-dominated landscapes in western NA because of future warming and consequent increases in water deficits. These results highlight the need for improved process-based understanding of vegetation dynamics, particularly including mortality and the subsequent incorporation of these mechanisms into earth system models to better quantify the vulnerability of western NA forests under climate change.

Journal of Climate↗
USGS2011

Pseudospectral modeling and dispersion analysis of Rayleigh waves in viscoelastic media

Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) is one of the most widely used techniques in environmental and engineering geophysics to determine shear-wave velocities and dynamic properties, which is based on the elastic layered system theory. Wave propagation in the Earth, however, has been recognized as viscoelastic and the propagation of Rayleigh waves presents substantial differences in viscoelastic media as compared with elastic media. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out numerical simulation and dispersion analysis of Rayleigh waves in viscoelastic media to better understand Rayleigh-wave behaviors in the real world. We apply a pseudospectral method to the calculation of the spatial derivatives using a Chebyshev difference operator in the vertical direction and a Fourier difference operator in the horizontal direction based on the velocity-stress elastodynamic equations and relations of linear viscoelastic solids. This approach stretches the spatial discrete grid to have a minimum grid size near the free surface so that high accuracy and resolution are achieved at the free surface, which allows an effective incorporation of the free surface boundary conditions since the Chebyshev method is nonperiodic. We first use an elastic homogeneous half-space model to demonstrate the accuracy of the pseudospectral method comparing with the analytical solution, and verify the correctness of the numerical modeling results for a viscoelastic half-space comparing the phase velocities of Rayleigh wave between the theoretical values and the dispersive image generated by high-resolution linear Radon transform. We then simulate three types of two-layer models to analyze dispersive-energy characteristics for near-surface applications. Results demonstrate that the phase velocity of Rayleigh waves in viscoelastic media is relatively higher than in elastic media and the fundamental mode increases by 10-16% when the frequency is above 10. Hz due to the velocity dispersion of P and S waves. ?? 2011 Elsevier Ltd.

Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering↗
USGS2023

Multi-year tracing of spatial and temporal dynamics of post-fire aeolian sediment transport using rare earth elements provide insights into grassland management

Aeolian sediment transport occurs as a function of, and with feedback to ecosystem changes and disturbances. Many desert grasslands are undergoing rapid changes in vegetation, including the encroachment of woody plants, which alters fire regimes and in turn can change the spatial and temporal patterns of aeolian sediment transport. We investigated aeolian sediment transport and spatial distribution of sediment in the surface soil for 7 years following a prescribed fire using a multiple rare earth element (REE) tracer-based approach in a shrub-encroached desert grassland in the northern Chihuahuan desert. Results indicate that even though the aeolian horizontal sediment mass flux increased approximately three-fold in the first windy season in the burned areas compared to control areas, there were no significant differences after three windy seasons. The soil surface of bare microsites was the major contributor of aeolian sediments in unburned areas (87%), while the shrub microsites contributed the least (<2%) during the observation period. However, after the prescribed fire, the contribution of aeolian sediments from shrub microsites increased considerably (∼40%), indicating post-fire microsite-scale sediment redistribution. The findings of this study, which is the first to use multiple REE tracers for multi-year analysis of the spatial and temporal dynamics of aeolian sediment transport, illustrate how disturbance by prescribed fire can influence aeolian processes and alters dryland soil geomorphology in which distinct soils develop over time at very fine spatial scales of individual plants.

New Mexico↗
USGS2021

Current activity on the Martian surface: A key subject for future exploration

One of the fundamental discoveries in Mars science in the last decade has been the extent and importance of current surface activity. Recent results have shifted our view of Mars from a world where the most interesting geologic events were in the distant past (similar to the Moon) to a world that undergoes active evolution and one where understanding the present is key to deciphering the planet’s history. When input was requested for the last Planetary Science Decadal Survey, some observations of surface changes had been published, but the number of detections was small and their significance not fully appreciated. Since that time, detections have proliferated, driven primarily by the long-term operation of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) and the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) as well as landed observations of aeolian activity. In addition to observed changes, theory suggests that additional important surface processes are likely active but not yet observed because orbital data are limited in space and time and landed studies are rare. Understanding current Martian surface processes is a fundamental science question in itself, as it provides a test for physical and terrestrial analog-based models of specific geological processes acting under non-Earth planetary and environmental conditions. It is also an essential step for reading Mars’ geologic history and providing input to climate models: without understanding current dynamic processes, we cannot understand how they have varied during recent climate cycles, nor how they are reflected in ancient rock or modern ice records. Understanding the rates and types of current surface activity is also highly relevant to selecting geological samples, setting Planetary Protection rules, and understanding the hazards and environment that would be experienced by future human explorers.

Bulletin of the AAS↗
USGS2004

The Chesapeake Bay Crater: Geology and geophysics of a Late Eocene submarine impact structure

The list of impact craters documented on Earth is short. Only about 165 genuine impact structures have been identified to date (Table 1.1). Even so, the number is steadily increasing at the rate of ∼3–5 per year (Grieve et al. 1995; Earth Impact Database at http://www.unb.ca/passc/Impact/Database/). In stark contrast, most other rocky planets and satellites of our solar system are pockmarked by thousands to hundreds of thousands of impact features (Beatty et al. 1999). Nevertheless, impact specialists acknowledge that Earth, too, has undergone billions of years of bolide bombardment (Melosh 1989; Schoenberg et al. 2002). The most intense bombardment, however, took place during Earth’s earliest history (∼3.8–4 Ga; Ryder 1990; Cohen et al. 2000; Ryder et al. 2000). Traces of most terrestrial impacts have been completely erased or strongly altered by the dynamic processes of a thick atmosphere, deep ocean, and mobile crust, a combination unique to our planet. Planetary geologists now recognize that processes associated with bolide impacts are fundamental to planetary accretion and surface modification (Melosh 1989; Peucker-Ehrenbrink and Schmitz 2001). Incoming meteorites may have been primary sources for Earth’s water, and, perhaps, even organic life as we know it (Thomas et al. 1997; Kring 2000). There is little doubt that impacts played a major role in the evolution of Earth’s biota (Ryder et al. 1996; Hart 1996).

Maryland; Virginia↗
USGS2006

This dynamic planet: World map of volcanoes, earthquakes, impact craters and plate tectonics

Our Earth is a dynamic planet, as clearly illustrated on the main map by its topography, over 1500 volcanoes, 44,000 earthquakes, and 170 impact craters. These features largely reflect the movements of Earth's major tectonic plates and many smaller plates or fragments of plates (including microplates). Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are awe-inspiring displays of the powerful forces of nature and can be extraordinarily destructive. On average, about 60 of Earth's 550 historically active volcanoes are in eruption each year. In 2004 alone, over 160 earthquakes were magnitude 6.0 or above, some of which caused casualties and substantial damage. This map shows many of the features that have shaped--and continue to change--our dynamic planet. Most new crust forms at ocean ridge crests, is carried slowly away by plate movement, and is ultimately recycled deep into the earth--causing earthquakes and volcanism along the boundaries between moving tectonic plates. Oceans are continually opening (e.g., Red Sea, Atlantic) or closing (e.g., Mediterranean). Because continental crust is thicker and less dense than thinner, younger oceanic crust, most does not sink deep enough to be recycled, and remains largely preserved on land. Consequently, most continental bedrock is far older than the oldest oceanic bedrock. (see back of map) The earthquakes and volcanoes that mark plate boundaries are clearly shown on this map, as are craters made by impacts of extraterrestrial objects that punctuate Earth's history, some causing catastrophic ecological changes. Over geologic time, continuing plate movements, together with relentless erosion and redeposition of material, mask or obliterate traces of earlier plate-tectonic or impact processes, making the older chapters of Earth's 4,500-million-year history increasingly difficult to read. The recent activity shown on this map provides only a present-day snapshot of Earth's long history, helping to illustrate how its present surface came to be. The map is designed to show the most prominent features when viewed from a distance, and more detailed features upon closer inspection. The back of the map zooms in further, highlighting examples of fundamental features, while providing text, timelines, references, and other resources to enhance understanding of this dynamic planet. Both the front and back of this map illustrate the enormous recent growth in our knowledge of planet Earth. Yet, much remains unknown, particularly about the processes operating below the ever-shifting plates and the detailed geological history during all but the most recent stage of Earth's development.

IMAP↗
USGS2010

Seismic source mechanism of degassing bursts at Kilauea volcano, Hawaii: Results from waveform inversion in the 10–50 s band

The current (March 2008 to February 2009) summit eruptive activity at Kilauea Volcano is characterized by explosive degassing bursts accompanied by very long period (VLP) seismic signals. We model the source mechanisms of VLP signals in the 10–50 s band using data recorded for 15 bursts with a 10‐station broadband network deployed in the summit caldera. To determine the source centroid location and source mechanism, we minimize the residual error between data and synthetics calculated by the finite difference method for a point source embedded in a homogeneous medium that takes topography into account. The VLP signals associated with the bursts originate in a source region ∼1 km below the eastern perimeter of Halemaumau pit crater. The observed waveforms are well explained by the combination of a volumetric component and a vertical single force component. For the volumetric component, several source geometries are obtained which equally explain the observed waveforms. These geometries include (1) a pipe dipping 64° to the northeast; (2) two intersecting cracks including an east striking crack (dike) dipping 80° to the north, intersecting a north striking crack (another dike) dipping 65° to the east; (3) a pipe dipping 58° to the northeast, intersecting a crack dipping 48° to the west–southwest; and (4) a pipe dipping 57° to the northeast, intersecting a pipe dipping 58° to the west–southwest. Using the dual‐crack model as reference, the largest volume change obtained among the 15 bursts is ∼24,400 m 3 , and the maximum amplitude (peak to peak) of the force is ∼20 GN. Each burst is marked by a similar sequence of deflation and inflation, trailed by decaying oscillations of the volumetric source. The vertical force is initially upward, synchronous with source deflation, then downward, synchronous with source reinflation, followed by oscillations with polarity opposite to the volumetric oscillations. This combination of force and volume change is attributed to pressure and momentum changes induced during a fluid dynamic source mechanism involving the ascent, expansion, and burst of a large slug of gas within the upper ∼150 m of the magma conduit. As the slug expands upon approach to the surface and more liquid becomes wall supported by viscous shear forces, the pressure below the slug decreases, inducing conduit deflation and an upward force on the Earth. The final rapid slug expansion and burst stimulate VLP and LP oscillations of the conduit system, which slowly decay due to viscous dissipation and elastic radiation. Consideration of the fluid dynamic arguments leads us to prefer the dual‐crack VLP source model as it is the only candidate model capable of producing plausible values of length scales and pressure changes. The magnitudes of the vertical forces observed in the 15 bursts appear consistent with slug masses of 10 4 to 10 6 kg.

Hawaii↗
USGS2002

Geodetic imaging: Reservoir monitoring using satellite interferometry

Fluid fluxes within subsurface reservoirs give rise to surface displacements, particularly over periods of a year or more. Observations of such deformation provide a powerful tool for mapping fluid migration within the Earth, providing new insights into reservoir dynamics. In this paper we use Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) range changes to infer subsurface fluid volume strain at the Coso geothermal field. Furthermore, we conduct a complete model assessment, using an iterative approach to compute model parameter resolution and covariance matrices. The method is a generalization of a Lanczos-based technique which allows us to include fairly general regularization, such as roughness penalties. We find that we can resolve quite detailed lateral variations in volume strain both within the reservoir depth range (0.4-2.5 km) and below the geothermal production zone (2.5-5.0 km). The fractional volume change in all three layers of the model exceeds the estimated model parameter uncertainly by a factor of two or more. In the reservoir depth interval (0.4-2.5 km), the predominant volume change is associated with northerly and westerly oriented faults and their intersections. However, below the geothermal production zone proper [the depth range 2.5-5.0 km], there is the suggestion that both north- and northeast-trending faults may act as conduits for fluid flow.

Geophysical Journal International↗