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At least 523 records · Page 29Linked to original sources
USGS2017

Size and age structure of anadromous and landlocked populations of Rainbow Smelt

Rainbow Smelt Osmerus mordax are widely distributed in both anadromous and landlocked populations throughout northeastern North America; abundance, size at age, and maximum size vary widely among populations and life histories. In the present study, size at age, von Bertalanffy growth parameters, population age distributions, and precision and bias in age assessment based on scales and sectioned otoliths were compared between ecotypes and among populations of Rainbow Smelt. To compare the ecotypes, we collected spawning adults from four anadromous and three landlocked populations in Maine during spring 2014. A significant bias was identified in only one of four scale comparisons but in four of seven otolith comparisons; however, a comparable level of precision was indicated. Anadromous populations had larger and more variable size at age and von Bertalanffy growth parameters than landlocked fish. Populations were composed of ages 1–4; six populations were dominated by age-2 or age-3 individuals, and one population was dominated by age-1 fish. These data suggest the presence of considerable plasticity among populations. A latitudinal gradient was observed in the anadromous Rainbow Smelt, which may show signs of population stress at the southern extent of their distribution.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2017

A comparison of two mobile electrode arrays for increasing mortality of Lake Trout embryos

Conservation of sport fisheries and populations of several native fishes in the western United States is dependent on sustained success of removal programs targeting invasive Lake Trout Salvelinus namaycush . Gill-netting of spawning adults is one strategy used to decrease spawning success; however, additional complementary methods are needed to disrupt Lake Trout reproduction where bycatch in gill nets is unacceptable. We developed and tested two portable electrode arrays designed to increase Lake Trout embryo mortality in known spawning areas. Both arrays were powered by existing commercial electrofishing equipment. However, one array was moved across the substrate to simulate being towed behind a boat (i.e., towed array), while the other array was lowered from a boat and energized when sedentary (i.e., sedentary array). The arrays were tested on embryos placed within substrates of known spawning areas. Both arrays increased mortality of embryos (>90%) at the surface of substrates, but only the sedentary array was able to increase mortality to >90% at deeper burial depths. In contrast, embryos at increasingly deeper depths exhibited progressively lower mortality when exposed to the towed array. Mortality of embryos placed under 20 cm of substrate and exposed to the towed array was not significantly different from that of unexposed embryos in a control group. We suggest that the sedentary array could be used as a viable approach for increasing mortality of Lake Trout embryos buried to 20 cm and that it could be modified to be effective at deeper depths.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2017

A comparison of age, size, and fecundity of harvested and reference White Sucker populations

White Suckers Catostomus commersonii are an important source of fresh bait for the Maine lobster fishery. The Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife began issuing commercial harvest permits in 1991, without reporting requirements or limits on the number of permits. There is recent concern that overfishing may be occurring. To infer impact, we investigated demographic differences between White Sucker populations in lakes open to harvest and those in lakes closed to harvest. Each of three harvested lakes was paired to a nearby closed lake as a reference based on general size, morphometry, and information on harvest pressure. In total, 976 spawning White Suckers were collected from the six lakes in 2014 (120–282 individuals/lake). Fish size, estimated age, fecundity, and mortality rates were compared between lakes. We hypothesized that we would find smaller, younger, and less-fecund individuals in harvested lakes compared to reference lakes. Size and age distributions for both sexes differed between nearly all lake pairs (except between males from one pair). White Suckers from reference lakes were larger and older and had greater gonadosomatic indices and fecundity than fish from harvested lakes. Estimated annual mortality rates were at least twofold higher in harvested lakes than in reference lakes. We detected some differences in von Bertalanffy growth parameters between lake pairs, as might occur under selective harvest pressure. The growth coefficient was smaller for reference lakes than for harvested lakes, while asymptotic length was greater for reference lakes than for harvested lakes. The data suggest that current levels of exploitation are resulting in greater age truncation in existing White Sucker populations.

Maine↗
USGS2017

Implanting 8-mm passive integrated transponder tags into small Brook Trout: Effects on growth and survival in the laboratory

Passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags are commonly used to investigate relationships between individual fish and their environment. The recent availability of smaller tags has provided the opportunity to tag smaller fish. In this study, we implanted 8-mm PIT tags into small Brook Trout Salvelinus fontinalis (35–50 mm FL; 0.35–1.266 g) and compared tag retention, growth rates, and survival of PIT-tagged fish with those of fish subjected to handling only or to handling plus fin clipping. We also examined how initial size at tagging affected absolute and specific growth rates of PIT-tagged individuals over time. We found that survival was 100%, tag retention was 96.7%, and fish size did not vary across treatments at 29 and 64 d posttagging. Additionally, there was no evidence that growth rate (FL or mass) was influenced by the initial size of the fish that were PIT tagged. Our results indicate that retention rates of 8-mm PIT tags surgically implanted into small Brook Trout are high and that there is no discernible effect on growth or survival in the laboratory. The ability to implant smaller PIT tags into smaller fish earlier in the season would allow researchers conducting PIT tag studies to expand demographic models to estimate survival of age-0 fish through the summer of their first year.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2017

Large wood and in-stream habitat for juvenile coho salmon and larval lampreys in a Pacific Northwest stream

The influences of large wood on Pacific salmon are well-studied, but studies of nonsalmonid species such as lampreys are uncommon. To address this need, we evaluated the potential effects of large wood on larval lampreys (Pacific Lamprey, Entosphenus tridentatus ; and potentially Western Brook Lamprey Lampetra richardsoni ), as well as juvenile Coho Salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch , in a small coastal Oregon stream. Our objectives were to 1) identify in-stream habitat characteristics associated with the presence of larval lampreys and abundance of juvenile Coho Salmon; and 2) evaluate how these characteristics were associated with in-stream wood. To address habitat use, we quantified presence of larval lampreys in 92 pools and abundance of juvenile Coho Salmon in 44 pools during summer low flows. We focused on a study reach where large wood was introduced into the stream between 2008 and 2009. Results indicated that presence of larval lampreys was significantly associated with availability of fine sediment and deeper substrate. The abundance of juvenile Coho Salmon (fish/pool) was strongly associated with pool surface area and to a weaker extent with the proportion of cobble and boulder substrates in pools. Pools with wood, regardless of whether they were formed by wood, had significantly greater coverage of fine sediment, deeper substrate, and greater pool surface area. Taken together, these results suggest that in-stream wood can provide habitat associated with presence of larval lampreys and greater abundance of juvenile Coho Salmon.

Oregon↗
USGS2017

Bioenergetics models to estimate numbers of larval lampreys consumed by smallmouth bass in Elk Creek, Oregon

Nonnative fishes have been increasingly implicated in the decline of native fishes in the Pacific Northwest. Smallmouth Bass Micropterus dolomieu were introduced into the Umpqua River in southwest Oregon in the early 1960s. The spread of Smallmouth Bass throughout the basin coincided with a decline in counts of upstream-migrating Pacific Lampreys Entosphenus tridentatus . This suggested the potential for ecological interactions between Smallmouth Bass and Pacific Lampreys, as well as freshwater-resident Western Brook Lampreys Lampetra richardsoni . To evaluate the potential effects of Smallmouth Bass on lampreys, we sampled diets of Smallmouth Bass and used bioenergetics models to estimate consumption of larval lampreys in a segment of Elk Creek, a tributary to the lower Umpqua River. We captured 303 unique Smallmouth Bass (mean: 197 mm and 136 g) via angling in July and September. We combined information on Smallmouth Bass diet and energy density with other variables (temperature, body size, growth, prey energy density) in a bioenergetics model to estimate consumption of larval lampreys. Larval lampreys were found in 6.2% of diet samples, and model estimates indicated that the Smallmouth Bass we captured consumed 925 larval lampreys in this 2-month study period. When extrapolated to a population estimate of Smallmouth Bass in this segment, we estimated 1,911 larval lampreys were consumed between July and September. Although the precision of these estimates was low, this magnitude of consumption suggests that Smallmouth Bass may negatively affect larval lamprey populations.

Oregon↗
USGS2017

Otolith marking of juvenile shortnose gar by immersion in oxytetracycline

Oxytetracycline (OTC) has been used to mark a variety of fish species at multiple developmental stages; however, there is little information on batch-marking Lepisosteidae. Juvenile Shortnose Gar Lepisosteus platostomus (53 ± 3 mm TL) were seined from an Oklahoma State University research pond and transported to the Oklahoma Fishery Research Lab. Juvenile Shortnose Gar were exposed to a range of OTC concentrations—0, 500, 600, and 700 mg/L—for 4, 5, or 6 h. Lapillus and sagitta otoliths were examined 14 d postexposure for mark presence and evaluation using fluorescent microscopy. Overall, 93.3% of otoliths exposed to OTC exhibited a mark. Concentration of OTC affected the mean mark quality, whereas duration and otolith type examined did not. However, as concentration increased, so did mortality, suggesting a balance is needed to achieve marking goals. Based on our findings, batch marking of Shortnose Gar can be successful at OTC concentrations from 500 to 700 mg/L for 4–6 h, although mark quality may vary and mortality rates increase at the higher concentrations and longer durations.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2017

Exploring the use of environmental DNA to determine the species of salmon redds

Annual redd counts are used to monitor the status and trends of salmonid populations, but methods to easily and reliably determine which of sympatric species made specific redds are lacking. We explored whether environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis might prove useful for determining the species of salmon redds. We collected eDNA samples from the interstitial spaces of redds of Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, redds of Coho Salmon O. kisutch, and areas of undisturbed gravel (n = 10, each), as well as from the water column adjacent to each of those sites in the Sandy River basin, Oregon, USA during the fall of 2013. The concentrations of Chinook and Coho eDNA were quantified within each sample using real-time PCR. The water in the interstitial spaces of redds contained significantly higher eDNA concentrations of the species that made the redd than (1) the other species and (2) the adjacent water column. In contrast, neither Chinook nor Coho eDNA was significantly more concentrated than the other in the water from the interstitial spaces of undisturbed gravel. The interstitial water of undisturbed gravel contained significantly higher eDNA concentrations of Coho than the adjacent water column. In contrast, Chinook eDNA concentration was similar in the interstitial water of undisturbed gravel and the adjacent water column. Both species’ redds had significantly higher concentrations of their respective species’ eDNA than did undisturbed gravel, but conclusions were confounded by differences in the timing and locations of sampling. This initial investigation highlights the potential value and some of the complexity of using eDNA analysis to indicate redd species.

Oregon↗
USGS2017

Comparison of American Fisheries Society (AFS) standard fish sampling techniques and environmental DNA for characterizing fish communities in a large reservoir

Recently, methods involving examination of environmental DNA (eDNA) have shown promise for characterizing fish species presence and distribution in waterbodies. We evaluated the use of eDNA for standard fish monitoring surveys in a large reservoir. Specifically, we compared the presence, relative abundance, biomass, and relative percent composition of Largemouth Bass Micropterus salmoides and Gizzard Shad Dorosoma cepedianum measured through eDNA methods and established American Fisheries Society standard sampling methods for Theodore Roosevelt Lake, Arizona. Catches at electrofishing and gillnetting sites were compared with eDNA water samples at sites, within spatial strata, and over the entire reservoir. Gizzard Shad were detected at a higher percentage of sites with eDNA methods than with boat electrofishing in both spring and fall. In contrast, spring and fall gillnetting detected Gizzard Shad at more sites than eDNA. Boat electrofishing and gillnetting detected Largemouth Bass at more sites than eDNA; the exception was fall gillnetting, for which the number of sites of Largemouth Bass detection was equal to that for eDNA. We observed no relationship between relative abundance and biomass of Largemouth Bass and Gizzard Shad measured by established methods and eDNA copies at individual sites or lake sections. Reservoirwide catch composition for Largemouth Bass and Gizzard Shad (numbers and total weight [g] of fish) as determined through a combination of gear types (boat electrofishing plus gillnetting) was similar to the proportion of total eDNA copies from each species in spring and fall field sampling. However, no similarity existed between proportions of fish caught via spring and fall boat electrofishing and the proportion of total eDNA copies from each species. Our study suggests that eDNA field sampling protocols, filtration, DNA extraction, primer design, and DNA sequencing methods need further refinement and testing before incorporation into standard fish sampling surveys.

Arizona↗
USGS2017

Estimating age at a specified length from the von Bertalanffy growth function

Estimating the time required (i.e., age) for fish in a population to reach a specific length (e.g., legal harvest length) is useful for understanding population dynamics and simulating the potential effects of length-based harvest regulations. The age at which a population reaches a specific mean length is typically estimated by fitting a von Bertalanffy growth function to length-at-age data and then rearranging the best-fit equation to solve for age at the specified length. This process precludes the use of standard frequentist methods to compute confidence intervals and compare estimates of age at the specified length among populations. We provide a parameterization of the von Bertalanffy growth function that has age at a specified length as a parameter. With this parameterization, age at a specified length is directly estimated, and standard methods can be used to construct confidence intervals and make among-group comparisons for this parameter. We demonstrate use of the new parameterization with two data sets.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2017

Using pharyngeal teeth and chewing pads to estimate juvenile Silver Carp total length in the La Grange Reach, Illinois River

The Silver Carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix is an invasive species in the Mississippi River basin; an understanding of their vulnerability to predation as juveniles may inform control by native predators and predator enhancement (e.g., stocking). Digestion of Silver Carp prey recovered from diets makes it difficult to determine the size‐classes that are most vulnerable to predation by native fishes. The objective of this study was to determine whether the sizes of the chewing pad (CP), pharyngeal teeth (PT), and pharyngeal arch (PA)—the Silver Carp structures most often found intact in predator diets—were predictive of the TL of prey Silver Carp. During 2014 and 2015, juvenile Silver Carp ( n = 136; <180 mm) were collected using 60‐Hz pulsed‐DC electrofishing and mini‐fyke nets in the La Grange reach of the Illinois River. We extracted Silver Carp CPs ( n = 136 fish) and PAs with PT intact ( n = 129 fish) and measured CP length (CP L ) and width (CP W ), eight reproducible PT landmarks (PT1 L –PT4 L ; PT1 W –PT4 W ), and four reproducible PA landmarks (PA1–PA4) to the nearest 0.01 µm. Using simple linear regression, we found a strong predictive relationship between measurements of CP, PT, or PA and the TL of Silver Carp. The CP L ( r 2 = 0.94) and CP W ( r 2 = 0.94) had the strongest relationships with Silver Carp TL, followed by PA1 ( r 2 = 0.89) and PT1 L ( r 2 = 0.87). These strong relationships suggest that all three structures could be used in diet analyses to accurately estimate Silver Carp TL and thus further our understanding of predator–prey dynamics for this high‐risk invasive species.

Illinois↗
USGS2017

Age, year‐class strength variability, and partial age validation of Kiyis from Lake Superior

ge estimates of Lake Superior Kiyis Coregonus kiyi from scales and otoliths were compared and 12 years (2003–2014) of length frequency data were examined to assess year‐class strength and validate age estimates. Ages estimated from otoliths were precise and were consistently older than ages estimated from scales. Maximum otolith‐derived ages were 20 years for females and 12 years for males. Age estimates showed high numbers of fish of ages 5, 6, and 11 in 2014, corresponding to the 2009, 2008, and 2003 year‐classes, respectively. Strong 2003 and 2009 year‐classes, along with the 2005 year‐class, were also evident based on distinct modes of age‐1 fish (<110 mm) in the length frequency distributions from 2004, 2010, and 2006, respectively. Modes from these year‐classes were present as progressively larger fish in subsequent years. Few to no age‐1 fish (<110 mm) were present in all other years. Ages estimated from otoliths were generally within 1 year of the ages corresponding to strong year‐classes, at least for age‐5 and older fish, suggesting that Kiyi age may be reliably estimated to within 1 year by careful examination of thin‐sectioned otoliths.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2017

Comparison of two viewing methods for estimating largemouth bass and walleye ages from sectioned otoliths and dorsal spines

Many biologists use digital images for estimating ages of fish, but the use of images could lead to differences in age estimates and precision because image capture can produce changes in light and clarity compared to directly viewing structures through a microscope. We used sectioned sagittal otoliths from 132 Largemouth Bass Micropterus salmoides and sectioned dorsal spines and otoliths from 157 Walleyes Sander vitreus to determine whether age estimates and among‐reader precision were similar when annuli were enumerated directly through a microscope or from digital images. Agreement of ages between viewing methods for three readers were highest for Largemouth Bass otoliths (75–89% among readers), followed by Walleye otoliths (63–70%) and Walleye dorsal spines (47–64%). Most discrepancies (72–96%) were ±1 year, and differences were more prevalent for age‐5 and older fish. With few exceptions, mean ages estimated from digital images were similar to ages estimated via directly viewing the structures through the microscope, and among‐reader precision did not vary between viewing methods for each structure. However, the number of disagreements we observed suggests that biologists should assess potential differences in age structure that could arise if images of calcified structures are used in the age estimation process.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2025

Spatial variation in landlocked Atlantic Salmon smolt survival associated with dam passage, avian predation, and stocking location

Objective We evaluated survival differences between upstream and downstream stocking for landlocked Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar smolts in a tributary to Lake Champlain. Methods We radio-tagged smolts and stocked them concurrently with 22,000 smolts at two release sites in 2 years. The downstream location (DS, river kilometer 16, no dam passage) was a historically used site in a dam tailrace, whereas the upstream site (US, river kilometer 27, two dams to pass) was in a side channel and stocked for the first time. We estimated survival, counted birds during stocking, and searched nesting colonies for transmitters. Results Within stocking reaches, survival per kilometer for the DS release group was markedly lower than that for the US group (US 2021 and 2022 = 0.98, 0.98, respectively; DS 2021 and 2022 = 0.82, 0.69, respectively). At the DS site, we documented a tenfold increase in avian predators following stocking, whereas no increase was detected at the US site. Passage was >96% at both dams, but postpassage survival (per kilometer) was much lower at the second dam (2021 = 0.78, 2022 = 0.82) compared to the first dam (2021 = 0.96, 2022 = 0.97). Surprisingly, cumulative survival to Lake Champlain was higher for fish that were released upstream in 2022 (US = 43%; DS = 32%) despite dam passage and additional migratory distance. At least 20% (2021) and 7% (2022) of successful migrants were later consumed by birds in the river delta or in Lake Champlain. Conclusions Upstream stocking did not consistently result in lower cumulative survival, likely due to predators habituated to annually reoccurring stocking in a dam tailrace that increased stocking-related mortality at the DS release site. We highlight the importance of evaluating historically used stocking sites, as substantial loss of smolts could be avoided by simple changes to stocking practices. Avian predation was a major source of mortality, necessitating further studies to understand and address survival issues within Lake Champlain.

Vermont↗
USGS2025

Comparing surgery time and short-term incision healing for Largemouth Bass using smooth- and barbed-absorbable sutures

Objective Barbed sutures have become increasingly favored over traditional smooth sutures in human medicine but remain understudied in fisheries biotelemetry applications. Our objectives were to (1) compare surgery time and recovery time for Largemouth Bass Micropterus nigricans when using smooth- versus barbed-absorbable sutures to close the incisions and (2) compare the short-term healing rates of incisions that were closed with the two sutures. Methods We conducted a surgical trial using two incision closure methods: a smooth suture method, which used three interrupted sutures, and a barbed suture method, which used a running style suture. Surgery and surgical recovery times were recorded for each surgery. At 14 d postsurgery, each incision was scored for openness and inflammation. Results Barbed sutures (median surgery time = 133.5 s) resulted in higher surgical efficiency than smooth sutures (median surgery time = 255.0 s). Surgical recovery time did not differ between the two suture types. Mortality did not differ between suture types (overall mortality = 21%) and was similar to previously reported mortality rates. Incision site inflammation and openness were variable but did not differ between suture types. Conclusions Our results indicate that barbed sutures may increase surgical efficiency while maintaining currently observed survival and healing rates for Largemouth Bass.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2025

First-year survival of Lake Sturgeon reintroduced to the Maumee River

Objective Lake Sturgeon Acipenser fulvescens have experienced large population declines due to overfishing, habitat degradation, and pollution. Due to these factors, Lake Sturgeon were extirpated from the Maumee River watershed (Ohio, United States). In 2018, a 20-year reintroduction program began that aims to establish a self-sustaining population in the Maumee River. To understand the potential success of the reintroduction program, our objectives were to estimate poststocking survival of reintroduced Lake Sturgeon from age 0 to age 1. We also wanted to understand whether survival differed between age-0 Lake Sturgeon reared in a streamside facility and those reared in a traditional hatchery. Methods Lake Sturgeon from the two facilities were surgically implanted with acoustic transmitters; tagged fish ( n = 40 per year) were released into the Maumee River in 2018, 2019, and 2021, and their movements were monitored by the Great Lakes Acoustic Telemetry Observation System. Results Approximately 75% of Lake Sturgeon were detected at 100 d after release and 50% were detected at 200 d after release. We found no differences in tag attrition between the two rearing strategies. Monthly survival estimates for Lake Sturgeon were 0.87 (95% CI = 0.81–0.92) in 2018, 0.97 (95% CI = 0.89–0.99) in 2019, and 0.95 (95% CI = 0.90–0.97) in 2021. No differences in survival between rearing strategies within release years existed. Annual survival estimates ranged from 0.19 to 0.71 among the three release years. Conclusions Our results, along with known survival rates for adult Lake Sturgeon, suggest that achieving the goal of 1,500 naturally reproducing individuals in the Maumee River is possible if reintroduced fish return to the Maumee River to spawn as adults.

Ohio↗
USGS2025

First evidence of natural reproduction and recruitment of reintroduced Lake Sturgeon in the Coosa River, Georgia

Objective Lake Sturgeon Acipenser fluences became extirpated from the Coosa River system in Georgia and Alabama during the 1970s. The Georgia Department of Natural Resources began stocking hatchery-raised Lake Sturgeon in 2002 with the goal of reestablishing a self-sustaining population. Stocking lapsed in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which allowed an opportunity to assess natural recruitment to the reintroduced population. Methods We conducted trammel-net surveys during May–August in 2022 and 2023 and removed a pectoral fin spine section from all captured individuals. We compared the fin spine sections of suspected naturally hatched juveniles with those from known-age, hatchery-raised juveniles to confirm our age estimates. Results We captured one age-2 juvenile Lake Sturgeon in 2022 and eight age-3 juveniles in 2023. This indicates the presence of natural recruitment due to the absence of stocking of hatchery individuals in 2020. Conclusions Documenting individuals of a year-class that was not created by hatchery-raised juveniles provides the first evidence that offspring of early reintroduced Lake Sturgeon are being recruited into the reintroduced population in the Coosa River, Georgia.

Alabama, Georgia↗
USGS2025

Genetic structure of an expanding population of Humpback Chub in Grand Canyon

Objective Humpback Chub (HBC) Gila cypha in Grand Canyon declined in abundance and distribution over the latter part of the 20th century but have substantially increased in abundance and distribution over the past two decades. Although previous genetic work suggested that HBC in Grand Canyon belong to one genetic group, here we evaluate the genetic structure of HBC in Grand Canyon to determine whether relic populations in western Grand Canyon may have contributed unique variation to the recent population expansion or whether differences in behavior linked to migration in eastern Grand Canyon may promote assortative mating and heretofore unrecognized population structure. Methods Using fin clips collected from 167 individual HBC representing four sampling sites within Grand Canyon, we extracted DNA and developed data sets consisting of approximately 20,000 anonymous genomic loci. We quantified patterns of genetic diversity, and we accounted for outlier single-nucleotide polymorphisms to ensure that our interpretations of genetic patterns were not misled by adaptive processes and did not mask adaptively important genetic variation. Results Despite behavioral variation and the possibility that individuals with unique genetic variation survived in isolated warmwater sites within western Grand Canyon, HBC were not differentiated by sampling site or by differences in migratory behavior. Heterozygosity and nucleotide diversity were consistently high among sampling sites, and inbreeding coefficients were close to zero. Conclusions The HBC in Grand Canyon constitute a single genetic population. Our results do not preclude a genetic basis to migratory behavior, but our data suggest that this trait does not lead to assortative mating. Furthermore, while HBC may have survived in discontiguous warmwater refugia in western Grand Canyon during decades when the main stem was too cold for spawning, our data did not reveal any noticeable spatial variability in HBC genetics in the main stem after the recent HBC population expansion.

Arizona↗