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Landsat satellites provide high-quality, multi-spectral imagery of the surface of the Earth. These moderate-resolution, remotely sensed images are not just pictures, but contain many layers of data collected at different points along the visible and invisible light spectrum. These data can be manipulated to reveal what the Earth’s surface looks like, including what types of vegetation are present or how a natural disaster has impacted an area (Fig. 1).
Despite previous studies, incomplete knowledge of the mammalian fauna of many national parks hinders our ability to understand the consequences of either management actions of natural disasters to such preserves. Faunal losses have occurred and can be expected to continue (Newmark 1986a, 1986b). our studies in and near Dinosaur National Monument, one of the parks studied by Newmark (1986a, 1986b), have added 11 species to the known fauna. Some species have increased with human impact; other species have either disappeared or are declining. Finally, many species, which are uncommon and poorly known, may have rather specific habitat needs.
During the last six years, from 2003-2008, Japan has been struck by three significant and damaging earthquakes: The most recent M6.6 Niigata Chuetsu Oki earthquake of July 16, 2007 off the coast of Kashiwazaki City, Japan; The M6.6 Niigata Chuetsu earthquake of October 23, 2004, located in Niigata Prefecture in the central Uonuma Hills; and the M8.0 Tokachi Oki Earthquake of September 26, 2003 effecting southeastern Hokkaido Prefecture. These earthquakes stand out among many in a very active period of seismicity in Japan. Within the upper 100 km of the crust during this period, Japan experienced 472 earthquakes of magnitude 6, or greater. Both Niigata events affected the south-central region of Tohoku Japan, and the Tokachi-Oki earthquake affected a broad region of the continental shelf and slope southeast of the Island of Hokkaido. This report is synthesized from the work of scores of Japanese and US researchers who led and participated in post-earthquake reconnaissance of these earthquakes: their noteworthy and valuable contributions are listed in an extended acknowledgements section at the end of the paper. During the Niigata Chuetsu Oki event of 2007, damage to the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa nuclear power plant, structures, infrastructure, and ground were primarily the product of two factors: (1) high intensity motions from this moderate-sized shallow event, and (2) soft, poor performing, or liquefiable soils in the coastal region of southwestern Niigata Prefecture. Structural and geotechnical damage along the slopes of dunes was ubiquitous in the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa region. The 2004 Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake was the most significant to affect Japan since the 1995 Kobe earthquake. Forty people were killed, almost 3,000 were injured, and many hundreds of landslides destroyed entire upland villages. Landslides were of all types; some dammed streams, temporarily creating lakes threatening to overtop their new embankments and cause flash floods and mudslides. The numerous landslides resulted, in part, from heavy rain associated with Typhoon Tokage. The earthquake forced more than 100,000 people into temporary shelters, and as many as 10,000 displaced from their upland homes for several years. Total damages was estimated by Japanese authorities at US$40 billion, making this the second most costly disaster in history, after the 1995 Kobe earth-quake. The 2003 Tokachi-Oki earthquake was the third event of magnitude 8.0+ to strike the southeastern portion of Hokkaido in the last 50 years. The event produced tsunami run-ups along the shoreline of southern Hokkaido that reached maximum heights of 4 meters. Accelerations recorded by seismic networks of Hokkaido indicated a high intensity motion region from Hiroo area to Kushiro City, with a PGA values in the range of 0.35 to 0.6g. Despite high acceleration levels, the observed ground failure, liquefaction, structural, port, and lifeline damages were remarkably light.
On 4 September 2010, a Mw7.1 earthquake occurred in Canterbury, New Zealand. Following the initial earthquake, an aftershock sequence was initiated, with the most significant aftershock being a Mw6.3 earthquake occurring on 22 February 2011. This aftershock caused severe damage to the city of Christchurch and building failures that killed 185 people. During the aftershock sequence it became evident that effective communication of aftershock information (e.g., history and forecasts) was imperative to assist with decision making during the response and recovery phases of the disaster, as well as preparedness for future aftershock events. As a consequence, a joint JCDR-USGS research project was initiated to investigate: • How aftershock information was communicated to organisations and to the public; • How people interpreted that information; • What people did in response to receiving that information; • What information people did and did not need; and • What decision-making challenges were encountered relating to aftershocks. Research was conducted by undertaking focus group meetings and interviews with a range of information providers and users, including scientists and science advisors, emergency managers and responders, engineers, communication officers, businesses, critical infrastructure operators, elected officials, and the public. The interviews and focus group meetings were recorded and transcribed, and key themes were identified. This paper focuses on the aftershock information needs for decision-making about the built environment post-earthquake, including those involved in response (e.g., for building assessment and management), recovery/reduction (e.g., the development of new building standards), and readiness (e.g. between aftershocks). The research has found that the communication of aftershock information varies with time, is contextual, and is affected by interactions among roles, by other information, and by decision objectives. A number of general and specific insights into improving the communication of aftershock information are provided.
The 2004 Indian Ocean and 2011 Tohoku-oki disasters dramatically demonstrated the destructiveness and deadliness of tsunamis. For the assessment of future risk posed by tsunamis it is necessary to understand past tsunami events. Recent work on tsunami deposits has provided new information on paleotsunami events, including their recurrence interval and the size of the tsunamis (e.g. [187–189]). Tsunamis are observed not only on the margin of oceans but also in lakes. The majority of tsunamis are generated by earthquakes, but other events that displace water such as landslides and volcanic eruptions can also generate tsunamis. These non-earthquake tsunamis occur less frequently than earthquake tsunamis; it is, therefore, very important to find and study geologic evidence for past eruption and submarine landslide triggered tsunami events, as their rare occurrence may lead to risks being underestimated. Geologic investigations of tsunamis have historically relied on earthquake geology. Geophysicists estimate the parameters of vertical coseismic displacement that tsunami modelers use as a tsunami's initial condition. The modelers then let the simulated tsunami run ashore. This approach suffers from the relationship between the earthquake and seafloor displacement, the pertinent parameter in tsunami generation, being equivocal. In recent years, geologic investigations of tsunamis have added sedimentology and micropaleontology, which focus on identifying and interpreting depositional and erosional features of tsunamis. For example, coastal sediment may contain deposits that provide important information on past tsunami events [190, 191]. In some cases, a tsunami is recorded by a single sand layer. Elsewhere, tsunami deposits can consist of complex layers of mud, sand, and boulders, containing abundant stratigraphic evidence for sediment reworking and redeposition. These onshore sediments are geologic evidence for tsunamis and are called ‘tsunami deposits’ (Figs. 26 and 27). Tsunami deposits can be classified into two groups: modern tsunami deposits and paleotsunami deposits. A modern tsunami deposit is a deposit whose source event is known. A paleotsunami deposit is a deposit whose age is estimated and has a source that is either inferred to be a historical event or is unknown.
We describe the use of Google Earth during and after a large damaging earthquake thatstruck the central Japan coast on 16 July 2007 to collect and organize damage information and guide the reconnaissance activities. This software enabled greater real-time collaboration among scientists and engineers. After the field investigation, the Google Earth map is used as a final reporting product that was directly linked to the more traditional research report document. Finally, we analyze the use of the software within the context of a post-disaster reconnaissance investigation, and link it to student use of GoogleEarth in field situations
The first U.S. Tsunami Hazard Assessment (Dunbar and Weaver, 2008) was prepared at the request of the National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP). The NTHMP is a partnership formed between federal and state agencies to reduce the impact of tsunamis through hazard assessment, warning guidance, and mitigation. The assessment was conducted in response to a 2005 joint report by the Sub-Committee on Disaster Reduction and the U.S. Group on Earth Observations entitled Tsunami Risk Reduction for the United States: A Framework for Action. The first specific action called for in the Framework was to “develop standardized and coordinated tsunami hazard and risk assessments for all coastal regions of the United States and its territories.” Since the first assessment, there have been a number of very significant tsunamis, including the 2009 Samoa, 2010 Chile, and 2011 Japan tsunamis. As a result, the NTHMP requested an update of the U.S. tsunami hazard assessment.
Until recently, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and major ground failures in populated regions have been viewed as natural disasters that were unpredictable and producing effects that were unavoidable. research over the past few decades has led to an increased understanding of the effects and causes of geological hazards and to a widening recognition that measures can be taken to reduce their impacts on people and structures. Thus, today, in the U.S.A and elsewhere, formal government programs have been established to study these hazrads, not only to explain and understand the phenomena themselves, but also to provide a basis for warning and mitigation strategies that will reduce losses and suffering.
An alarm bell rings at the seismographic station and at the office of the campus police. It is 3:00 on a foggy San Francisco morning. Somewhere in the world an earthquake has occurred. The police telephone the duty seismologist at home telling him that the alarm has triggered. He makes his way into the seismograph station, bathrobe and all, to locate the earthquake and determine its magnitude. In this way, many seismology graduate students have been initiated into the responsibilities of running a seismographic station. At the University of California seismographic stations, the task of locating and determining magnitudes for both local and distant earthquakes is a continuous one. Teleseisms must be located rapidly so that events that occur in the Pacific can be identified and the Pacific Tsunami Warning System alerted. For great earthquakes anywhere, there is a responsibility to notify public agencies such as the California Office of Emergency Services, the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration, the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, the California Seismic Safety Commission, and the American Red Cross. In the case of damaging local earthquakes, it is necessary to alert also the California Department of Water Resources, California Division of Mines and Geology, U.S Army Corps of Engineers, Federal Bureau of Reclamation, and the Bay Area Rapid Transit. These days, any earthquakes that are felt in northern California cause immediate inquiries from the news media and an interested public. The series of earthquakes that jolted the Livermore area from January 24 to 26 1980, is a good case in point.
Historically, significant advances in volcanology have been catalyzed by volcanic disasters or crises, reflecting the the simple fact that volcanoes seem to receive serious scientific and public attention only when they cause, or threaten to cause, trouble. For example, three deadly eruptions in 1902, Mount Pelee, Santa Maria, and Soufriere (St.Vincent), spurred the movement to establish permanent volcano observatories there. Profoundly impresses by the devastation cused by Mont Pelee, Thomas A. Jaggar, Jr. founded the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) in 1912. Since then, studies conducted at HVO and new observatories have been pivotal in transforming the nascent science of volcanology into the multidisciplinary science that it is today.
When an earthquake occurs, we must be ready at the National Earthquake Information Service (NEIS) in Golden, Colo., to provide information as to its magnitude and epicenter as quickly as possible.This information is given to agencies concerned with disaster relief and to the press. A typical scenario for our operations was the recent Rumanian earthquake of March 4, 1977.
The hazards to life and property from earthquakes can be minimized in three ways. First, structures can be designed and built to resist the effects of earthquakes. Second, the location of structures and human activities can be chosen to avoid or to limit the use of areas known to be subject to serious earthquake hazards. Third, preparations for an earthquake in response to a prediction or warning can reduce the loss of life and damage to property as well as promote a rapid recovery from the disaster. The success of the first two strategies, earthquake engineering and land use planning, depends on being able to reliably estimate the earthquake potential. The key considerations in defining the potential of a region are the location, size, and character of future earthquakes and frequency of their occurrence. Both historic seismicity of the region and the geologic record are considered in evaluating earthquake potential.
I have often been asked, "As a city manager, what is the first thing you do in an earthquake?" I generally say, "Look up, something heavy might be falling on you. Actually, the first step is to declare an emergency. The city council can ratify it later. The declaration is in your emergency preparedness plan, if you can find it. Mine was under a pile of debris; but after, I turned it up, I located an old declaration from a flood disaster and inserted the word "earthquake" wherever I found the word "flood." The declaration is necessary to give the city some protection from liability, which unfortunately, it will need.
Kansas is preeminently an agricultural state. According to the United States census of 1910, the area in farms was 43,384,799 acres, or 67,789 square miles, 83 per cent of the total area of the state —82,158 square miles. The products of these farms rank high in value among those of farms in other states, as shown by comparative statistics compiled by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Crop Estimates. For the period from 1913 to 1917 Kansas ranked ninth of the states of the United States in the value of all crops raised, exclusive of livestock; in 1919 Kansas ranked fifth. In livestock Kansas ranked sixth in 1918 and eighth in 1919. Climatic conditions have largely dominated agricultural development in Kansas. Early ventures in dry farming in western Kansas, encouraged by a succession of rainy seasons, resulted in disheartening disasters, due to the dry seasons that followed. Throughout that region the farmers have gradually utilized the surface and underground waters for irrigation to provide against this deficiency of rainfall. The floods that have occurred in the valleys of eastern" Kansas at frequent intervals during the past twenty years have been the subject of much investigation by state and Federal organizations. In 1844 and 1903 exceptionally disastrous floods occurred in the Kansas (Kaw) valley. Floods that were of lesser magnitude, but that caused widespread loss and injury to property, have occurred in other years, the most recent being the flood of 1915. Much of the cultivated land in these valleys lies along fertile river bottoms that are annually liable to overflow, and the control of the flood waters on these rivers and their tributaries is therefore one of the problems arising from unfavorable climate that demand early solution. In view of the increasing demand for water for domestic service and fire protection, the need of determining whether the supply is adequate for rapidly growing centers of population throughout the state has recently been impressed very strongly upon a great many communities. The dependability of available sources of water supply during seasons of drought is fully as important as investigations of flood problems. Practical solutions of the many local and statewide water problems, such as flood protection, flood prevention, domestic water supply, drainage, irrigation, and water power, depend largely on a thorough knowledge of certain physical data relating to water resources. Hydrologic conditions differ widely in the different drainage basins, so that long-time investigations of stream-flow phenomena in each basin, as well as long-time investigations of meteorologic conditions over the state, are essential in the formulation of comprehensive plans to meet specific water problems. The collection of long-time records of stream-flow in Kansas which is published in this volume has been prepared for the use of those who are concerned with the different phases of the utilization of water in the state.
The South China Sea is poorly understood in terms of its marine biota, ecology and the human impacts upon it. What is known is most often contained in reports and workshop and conference documents that are not available to the wider scientific community. The South China Sea has an area of some 3.3 million km 2 and depths range from the shallowest coastal fringe to 5377 m in the Manila Trench. It is also studded with numerous islets, atolls and reefs many of which are just awash at low tide. It is largely confined within the Tropic of Cancer and, therefore, experiences a monsoonal climate being influenced by the Southwest Monsoon in summer and the Northeast Monsoon in winter. The South China Sea is a marginal sea and, therefore, largely surrounded by land. Countries that have a major influence on and claims to the sea include China, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam, although Thailand, Indonesia and Taiwan have some too. The coastal fringes of the South China Sea are home to about 270 million people that have had some of the fastest developing and most vibrant economies on the globe. Consequently, anthropogenic impacts, such as over-exploitation of resources and pollution, are anticipated to be huge although, in reality, relatively little is known about them. The Indo-West Pacific biogeographic province, at the centre of which the South China Sea lies, is probably the world's most diverse shallow-water marine area. Of the three major nearshore habitat types, i.e., coral reefs, mangroves and seagrasses, 45 mangrove species out of a global of 51, most of the currently recognised 70 coral genera and 20 of 50 known seagrass species have been recorded from the South China Sea. The island groups of the South China Sea are all disputed and sovereignty is claimed over them by a number of countries. Conflicts have in recent decades arisen over them because of perceived national rights. It is perhaps because of this that so little research has been undertaken on the South China Sea. What data are available, however, and if Hong Kong is used , as it is herein, as an indicator of what the perturbations of other regional cities upon the South China Sea are like, then it is impacted grossly and an ecological disaster has probably already, but unknowingly, happened.
Post-earthquake financial decision-making is a realm beyond that of many people. In the immediate aftermath of a damaging earthquake, billions of dollars of relief, recovery, and insurance funds are in the balance through new financial instruments that allow those with resources to hedge against disasters and those at risk to limit their earthquake losses and receive funds for response and recovery.
That shorelines change, oftentimes dramatically in short periods of time, is an accepted fact for those who live along the shore. However, when two-thirds or approximately 512 miles of a state's ocean-facing shore exhibits a long-term erosional trend, in some locations eroding at an average annual rate of 12 feet per year, as is the case in Massachusetts, shoreline property owners, prospective shorefront property owners, and coastal managers need to pay particular attention to the future location of the shoreline to avoid physical and economic disasters. The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Sea Grant Program, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Cape Cod Cooperative Extension recently completed an update and statistical analysis of historical shoreline change along approximately 1,000 miles of Massachusetts' ocean-facing shore, of which 754 miles were statistically analyzed (Thieler, O'Connell and Schupp, 2001; Schupp, Thieler & O'Connell, 2001). The project was funded by the Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management. In general, four to five shoreline positions mapped between the mid-1800s to 1994 were used to analyze changes along the Massachusetts shore. Seventy-six shoreline change maps with accompanying data tables and a Technical Report were produced. The results of this study reveal that approximately two-thirds of the Massachusetts shore is eroding, with 68% of the shore exhibiting a long-term erosional trend, 30% showing long-term accretion, and 2% showing no net change. ln some areas, erosion rates have accelerated based on a comparison study of previous data that was conducted in 1997 (O'Connell, 1997). Ironically, coastal property that commands some of the highest real estate values in the Commonwealth also exhibits the highest consistent long-term average annual erosion rates. This paper describes the data sources used to map historic shorelines in Massachusetts, the methodology used to both plot a new shoreline and analyze the long-term historical data, and describes cautions necessary when interpreting and applying shoreline change data, with site-specific examples along the Massachusetts shore.
The understanding of earthquake risk is the first step towards the development and implementation of disaster risk reduction measures. However, in many countries, especially the countries of the developing world, earthquake risk models either do not exist or are publicly inaccessible. The Global Earthquake Model (GEM) Foundation and its partners have been supporting regional programmes and bilateral collaborations to develop a global earthquake risk model, due by the end of 2018. This paper describes how the main components (seismic hazard, exposure models and vulnerability functions) of this global effort are being collected, developed or improved. The calculations are being performed using the OpenQuake-engine, the open-source software for seismic hazard and risk calculations supported by GEM. This model will be able to provide estimates of critical risk metrics such as annualized average economic and human losses or aggregated losses for particular return periods, which are fundamental to the development of efficient and effective mitigation planning.