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USGS1968

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 3: lower Thames and southeastern coastal river basins

The lower Thames and southeastern coastal river basins have a relatively abundant supply of water of generally good quality which is derived from streams entering the area and precipitation that has fallen on the area. Annual precipitation has ranged from about 32 inches to 65 inches and has averaged about 48 inches over a 30-year period. Approximately 22 inches of water are returned to the atmosphere each year by evaporation and transpiration; the remainder of the annual precipitation either flows overland to streams or percolates downward to the water table and ultimately flows out of the report area through estuaries and coastal streams or as underflow through the deposits beneath. During the autumn and winter months precipitation normally is sufficient to cause a substantial increase in the amount of water stored underground and in surface reservoirs within the report area, whereas in the summer most of the precipitation is lost through evaporation and transpiration, resulting in sharply reduced stream-flow and lowered ground-water levels. The mean monthly storage of water on an average is about 3.8 inches higher in November than it is in June. The amount of water that flows through and out of the report area represents the total amount of water potentially available for use by man. For the 30-year period 1931 through 1960, the annual runoff from the report area has averaged nearly 26 inches (200 billion gallons), from the entire Thames River basin above Norwich about 24 inches (530 billion gallons), and from the Pawcatuck River basin about 26 inches (130 billion gallons). A total average annual runoff of 860 billion gallons is therefore available. Although runoff indicates the total amount of water potentially available, it is usually not economically feasible for man to use all of it. On the other hand, with increased development, it is possible that some water will be reused several times. The water available may be tapped as it flows through the area or is temporarily stored in streams, lakes, and aquifers. The amounts that can be developed vary from place to place and time to time, depending on the amount of precipitation, on the size of drainage area, on the thickness, permeability, and areal extent of aquifers, and on the variations in chemical and physical quality of the water. Differences in streamflow from point to point are due primarily to differences in the proportion of stratified drift in the drainage basin above each point, which affect the timing of streamflow, and to differences in precipitation, which affect the amount of streamflow. Ground water can be obtained from wells almost anywhere in the area, but the amount obtainable at any particular point depends upon the type and water-bearing properties of the aquifers. For practical purposes, the earth materials in the report area comprise three aquifers--stratified drift, bedrock, and till. Stratified drift is the only aquifer generally capable of yielding more than 100 gpm (gallons per minute) to individual wells. It covers about 20 percent of the area and occurs chiefly in lowlands where it overlies till and bedrock. The coefficient of permeability of the coarse-grained unit of stratified drift averages about 1,500 gbd (gallons per day) per sq ft. Drilled, screened wells tapping this unit are known to yield from 4 to 88o gpm and average 146 gpm. Dug wells in coarse-grained stratified drift supply about 2 gpm per foot of drawdown over a period of a few hours. Fine-grained stratified drift has an average coefficient of permeability of about 300 gpd per sq ft and can usually yield supplies sufficient for household use to dug wells. Bedrock and till are widespread in extent but generally provide only small water supplies. Bedrock is tapped chiefly by drilled wells, about 90 percent of which will supply at least 3 gpm. Very few, however, will supply more than 50 gpm. Till is tapped in a few places by dug wells which can yield small supplies of only a few hundred gpd throughout all or most of the year. The coefficient of permeability of till ranges from about 0.2 gpd per sq ft to 120 gpd per sq ft. The amount of ground water potentially available in the report area depends upon the amount of ground-water outflow, the amount of ground water in storage, and the quantity of water available by induced infiltration from streams and lakes. From data on permeability, saturated thickness, recharge, yield from aquifer storage, well performance, and streamflow, preliminary estimates of ground-water availability can be made for any point in the report area. Long-term yields estimated for 18 areas of stratified drift especially favorable for development of large ground-water supplies ranged from 1.3 to 66 mgd. Detailed site studies to determine optimum yields, drawdowns, and spacing of individual wells are needed before major ground-water development is undertaken in these or other areas. The chemical quality of water in the report area is generally good to excellent. Samples of naturally occurring surface water collected at 24 sites contained less than 151 ppm (parts per million) of dissolved solids and less than 63 ppm of hardness. Water from wells is more highly mineralized than naturally occurring water from streams. Even so only 12 percent of the wells sampled yielded water with more than 200 ppm of dissolved solids and only 8 percent yielded water with more than 120 ppm of hardness. Even in major streams, which are used to transport industrial waste, hardness rarely exceeds 60 ppm and the dissolved mineral content is generally less than 200 ppm. At a few places in the town of Montville however, waters may contain dissolved mineral concentrations of 2,000 to 4,000 ppm. Iron and manganese in both ground water and surface water are the only constituents whose concentrations commonly exceed recommended limits for domestic and industrial use. Most wells in the report area yield clear water with little or no iron or manganese, but distributed among them are wells yielding ground water that contains enough of these dissolved constituents to be troublesome for most uses. Iron concentrations in naturally occurring stream water exceed 0.3 ppm under low-flow conditions at 33 percent of the sites sampled. Large concentrations of iron in stream water result from discharge of iron-bearing water from aquifers or from swamps where it is released largely from decaying vegetation. Ground water more than 30 feet below the land surface has a relatively constant temperature, usually between 48°F and 52°F. Water temperature in very shallow wells may fluctuate from about 38°F in February or March to about 55°F in late summer. Water temperature in the larger streams fluctuates much more widely, ranging from 32°F at least for brief periods in winter, to about 85°F occasionally during summer. The quality of suspended sediment transported by streams in the area is negligible. Turbidity in streams is generally not a problem although amounts large enough to be troublesome may occur locally at times. The total amount of water used in the report area for all purposes during 1964 was about 118,260 million gallons, of which 105,600 million gallons was estuarine water used for cooling by industry. The average per capita water use, excluding estuarine, temporary summer residence, and institutional water was equivalent to 186 gpd. Public water systems supplied the domestic needs of nearly tw0-thirds the population of the report area. All of the 19 systems, which were sampled, provided water of better quality than the U.S. Public Health Service suggests for drinking water standards.

Connecticut↗
USGS1972

Water resources inventory of Connecticut Part 6: Upper Housatonic River basin

The upper Housatonic River basin report area has an abundant supply of water of generally good quality, which is derived from precipitation on the area and streams entering the area. Annual precipitation has averaged about 46 inches over a 30-year period. Of this, approximately 22 inches of water is returned to the atmosphere each year by evaporation and transpiration; the remainder flows overland to streams or percolates downward to the water table and ultimately flows out of the report area in the Housatonic River or in smaller streams tributary to the Hudson River. During the autumn and winter precipitation normally is sufficient to cause a substantial increase in the amount of water stored in surface reservoirs and in aquifers, whereas in the summer, losses through evaporation and transpiration result in sharply reduced streamflow and lowered ground-water levels. Mean monthly storage of water in November is 2.8 inches more than it is in June. The amount of water that flows into, through, and out of the report area represents the total amount potentially available for use ignoring reuse. For the 30-year period 1931 through 1960, the annual runoff from precipitation has averaged 24 inches (294 billion gallons). During the same period, inflows from Massachusetts and New York have averaged 220 and 64 billion gallons per year, respectively. A total average annual runoff of 578 billion gallons is therefore available. Although runoff indicates the total amount of water potentially available, it is rarely feasible to use all of it. On the other hand, with increased development, some water may be reused several times. The water availability may be tapped as it flows through the area or is temporarily stored in streams, lakes, and aquifers. The amounts that can be developed differ from place to place and time to time, depending on the amount of precipitation, on the size of drainage area, on the thickness, transmissivity, and areal extent of aquifers, and on the variations in chemical and physical quality of water. Differences in precipitation cause differences in the amount of streamflow whereas differences in the proportion of stratified drift affect its timing. Water can be obtained from wells almost anywhere in the area, but the amount obtainable at any particular point depends on the type and water-bearing properties of the aquifers tapped. Stratified-drift aquifers are the only ones generally capable of yielding more than 100 gpm (gallons per minute) to individual wells. Drilled, screened wells tapping this unit yield from 17 to 1,400 gpm, with a median yield of 200 gpm. Till and bedrock are widespread but generally provide only small supplies of water. Till is tapped in a few places by dug wells, which can yield small supplies of only a few hundred gallons per day throughout all or most of the year. Bedrock is the chief aquifer for privately owned domestic and rural supplies; it is tapped by drilled wells, about 90 percent of which will supply at least 2 gpm. Only 1 of 10 bedrock wells, however, will supply more than 30 gpm. The amount of ground water potentially available in the report area depends upon the thickness and hydraulic properties of aquifers, the amount of salvageable natural discharge of ground water, and the quantity of water available by induced infiltration from streams and lakes. From data on transmissivity, thickness, recharge, well performance, and streamflow, preliminary estimates of ground-water availability can be made for most stratified-drift aquifers in the report area. Long-term yields estimated for eight areas of stratified drift especially favorable for development of large ground-water supplies ranged from 0.6 to 5 mgd (million gallons per day). Detailed site studies are needed to verity these estimates and to determine optimum yields, drawdowns, and spacing of individual wells before major ground-water development is undertaken in these or other areas. The chemical quality of water in the report area is generally good; carbonate-bedrock units exert considerable local influence on water quality. Samples of naturally occurring surface water collected at 24 sites during low flow averaged 90 mg/l (milligrams per liter) dissolved solids and 60 mg/l hardness. Water from wells is generally more highly mineralized than naturally occurring water from streams. About 37 percent of the wells sampled yielded water with more than 200 mg/l dissolved solids and 50 percent yielded water with more than 120 mg/l hardness. These concentrations reflect the high degree of mineralization of ground water in carbonate bedrock and unconsolidated deposits derived from this bedrock. The larger streams, which transport varying amounts of industrial and domestic effluents, averaged about 150 mg/l dissolved solids and 90 mg/l hardness. Iron and manganese concentrations in both ground water and surface water at some places exceed recommended limits for domestic and industrial use. Most wells in the report area yield water with little or no iron or manganese. In certain localities however, the probability is high of encountering water with excessive concentrations of these constituents. Schists, especially the unit in the northwestern corner of the basin, are the likely sources of water with excessive iron and manganese. Iron concentrations in naturally occurring stream water exceed 0.3 mg/l under low-flow conditions at 29 percent of the sites sampled. These excessive concentrations result from discharge of iron-bearing water from aquifers or from swamps where iron is released from decaying vegetation. Water temperature in the larger streams ranges from 0°C (degrees Celsius) to about 28°C. Ground water between 30 feet and 200 feet below the land surface has a relatively constant temperature, usually between 8°C and 11°C. The quantity of suspended sediment transported by streams under natural conditions is negligible. Even in streams affected by man, turbidity is rarely a problem. The total amount of water used in the report area for all purposes during 1967 was about 6,360 million gallons, or 140 gpd per person. Public supplies furnished the domestic needs of nearly half the population of the area. All of the 14 public supplies sampled provided water that meets the drinking water standards of the U.S. Public Health Service.

Connecticut↗
USGS1998

A national look at nitrate contamination of ground water

Ground water provides drinking water for more than one-half of the Nation's population (Solley and others, 1993), and is the sole source of drinking water for many rural communities and some large cities. In 1990, ground water accounted for 39 percent of water withdrawn for public supply for cities and towns and 96 percent of water withdrawn by self-supplied systems for domestic use. A variety of chemicals, including nitrate, can pass through the soil and potentially contaminate ground water. Nitrate comes from nitrogen, a plant nutrient supplied by inorganic fertilizer and animal manure. Additionally, airborne nitrogen compounds given off by industry and automobiles are deposited on the land in precipitation and dry particles. Other nonagricultural sources of nitrate include lawn fertilizers, septic systems, and domestic animals in residential areas. Beneath agricultural lands, nitrate is the primary form of nitrogen. It is soluble in water and can easily pass through soil to the ground-water table. Nitrate can persist in ground water for decades and accumulate to high levels as more nitrogen is applied to the land surface every year. Knowing where and what type of risks to ground water exist can alert water-resource managers and private users of the need to protect water supplies. Although nitrate generally is not an adult public-health threat, ingestion in drinking water by infants can cause low oxygen levels in the blood, a potentially fatal condition (Spalding and Exner, 1993). For this reason, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established a drinking-water standard of 10 milligrams per liter (mg/L) nitrate as nitrogen (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995). Nitrate concentrations in natural ground waters are usually less than 2 mg/L (Mueller and others, 1995).

Water Conditioning and Purification↗
USGS2011

Applications of selective ion exchange for perchlorate removal, recovery, and environmental forensics

Perchlorate (ClO4-) is a widespread contaminant found in drinking water and groundwater that has caused far-reaching ramifications ranging from public health issues to potential liabilities arising from environmental clean-up requirements. The chapter summarizes recent developments in highly selective and regenerable ion exchange technologies for removing ClO4- from contaminated water. The technologies rely on a unique, highly specific resin to trap ClO4-. The resin is then regenerated and ClO4- is either destroyed or recovered—leading to significant cost reduction and waste minimization. The ability to recover trace quantities of pure ClO4- from contaminated media also allows unambiguous identification of the sources of its contamination through stable isotope ratio analysis of chlorine and oxygen atoms. We provide detailed descriptions of the techniques for extracting, purifying, and crystallizing trade amounts of ClO4- and characterizing its isotopic composition for fingerprinting in the environment.

Book chapter↗
USGS2013

Operational Group Sandy technical progress report

Hurricane Sandy made US landfall near Atlantic City, NJ on 29 October 2012, causing 72 direct deaths, displacing thousands of individuals from damaged or destroyed dwellings, and leaving over 8.5 million homes without power across the northeast and mid-Atlantic. To coordinate federal rebuilding activities in the affected region, the President established the cabinet-level Hurricane Sandy Rebuilding Task Force (Task Force). The Task Force was charged with identifying opportunities for achieving rebuilding success while supporting economic vitality, improving public health and safety, protecting and enhancing natural and manmade infrastructure, bolstering resilience, and ensuring appropriate accountability. The Department of the Interior (DOI) Strategic Sciences Group (SSG) was established in 2012 to provide interdisciplinary science-based scenarios for environmental crises affecting Departmental resources. In January 2013, the Secretary of the Interior directed the SSG to support the Department’s participation in the Task Force. The SSG assembled a team of experts from government, academia, and non-governmental organizations – Operational Group Sandy (OGS) – to develop scenarios for the impacts of Hurricane Sandy and future major storms on coastal communities and urban systems in the New York/New Jersey region. This report documents results from the March 2013 deployment of the OGS. It includes background information on Hurricane Sandy and the federal response; the OGS methodology; scenarios for Hurricane Sandy’s impact on coastal communities and urban ecosystems; potential interventions to improve regional resilience to future major storms; a discussion of scenario results; and lessons learned about the OGS process.

Report↗
USGS1987

Instream water use in the United States: water laws and methods for determining flow requirements

Water use generally is divided into two primary classes - offstream use and instream use. In offstream use, sometimes called out-of-stream or diversionary use, water is withdrawn (diverted) from a stream or aquifer and transported to the place of use. Examples are irrigated agriculture, municipal water supply, and industrial use. Each of these offstream uses, which decreases the volume of water available downstream from the point of diversion, is discussed in previous articles in this volume. Instream use, which generally does not diminish the flow downstream from its point of use, and its importance are described in this article. One of the earliest instream uses of water in the United States was to turn the water wheels that powered much of the Nation's industry in the 18th and 19th centuries. Although a small volume of water might have been diverted to a mill near streamside, that water usually was returned to the stream near the point of diversion and, thus, the flow was not diminished downstream from the mill. Over time, the generation of hydroelectric power replaced mill wheels as a means of converting water flow into energy. Since the 1920's, the generation of hydroelectric power increasingly has become a major instream use of water. By 1985, more than 3 billion acre-feet of water (3,050,000 million gallons per day) was used annually for hydropower generation (Solley and others, 1988, p. 45)-enough water to cover the State of Colorado to a depth of 51 feet. Navigation is another instream use with a long history. The Lewis and Clark expedition journals and many of Mark Twain's novels illustrate the extent to which the Nation originally depended on adequate streamfiows for basic transportation. Navigation in the 1980's is still considered to be an instream use; however, it often is based upon a stream system that has been modified greatly through channelization, diking, and construction of dams and locks. The present (1987) inland water navigation system in the conterminous United States consists of about 12,000 miles of maintained waterways, over which about 500 million tons of cargo is carried each year (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1988, p. 16). Although not so widely practiced in recent years, streams have been used to dispose of raw waste products from homes, communities, and factories. This use has been discouraged by law and public policy because of public health concerns and the damage it causes to the environment. Beginning in the mid-1960's, other instream uses gained new prominence in the water-resources arena-the assertion of a legal right to a free-flowing stream for biological, recreational, and esthetic purposes. These uses themselves, however, are not new. Riverine habitat always has produced fish, and the beauty of flowing water always has evoked a strong sense of esthetic appreciation. What is new is the emerging legitimacy and awareness of these noneconomic uses under State and Federal laws and regulations. In the past, environmental uses of flowing water were ignored, for the most part, under a long-standing legal tradition that favored offstream uses and certain instream uses that had a strong economic basis. The history of instream-flow policy debate really concerns those recently recognized types of interim uses. Although the more transitional water uses have been protected by law, the recognition of other in stream uses has resulted in substantial changes in State water laws. Although methods for determining the volume of water needed for most traditional water uses are relatively straight-forward and well-established, methods for determining water requirements for the in stream uses have been developed only recently and are continuing to evolve. Water laws that have favored the more traditional water uses, the inherent nature of conflict between instream and offstream water uses, and the special kinds of technological and philosophical problems posed by the "newer" types of instream uses are described below. Water laws that have been passed to accommodate the more recently recognized instream uses are summarized.

Report↗
USGS2011

Laboratory simulated transport of microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin in groundwater under the influence of stormwater ponds: implications for harvesting of infiltrated stormwater

Water shortages in the southeastern United States have led to a need for more intensive management and usage of stormwater for beneficial uses such as irrigation. Harvesting of infiltrated stormwater from horizontal wells in sandy aquifer sediments beneath stormwater ponds has emerged as an alternative in need of evaluation. Cyanobacteria may proliferate in stormwater ponds; cyanotoxins produced by these organisms represent potential public health concerns. Results of two, saturated flow, sand column experiments indicate breakthrough of microcystin-LR (MCLR) and cylindrospermopsin (CYL) within 1―2 pore volumes indicating little removal attributable to sorption. Concentration-based MCLR removal efficiencies up to 90% were achieved, which we hypothesize were predominantly due to biodegradation. In contrast, CYL removal efficiencies were generally less than 15%. On the basis of these results, removal of sandy soil in the stormwater pond bottom and addition of sorption media with greater binding affinities to cyanotoxins may enhance natural attenuation processes prior to water withdrawal.

Conference Paper↗
USGS1975

Ground-water resources and geology of Waukesha County, Wisconsin

Good-quality water is available from the sand-and-gravel, Niagara, and sandstone aquifers in Waukesha County, Wis. As much as 15 gallons per minute (0.95 litres per second) can be obtained from wells almost everywhere in the county. Several hundred gallons per minute are available from aquifers in the glacial drift that fill bedrock valleys to thicknesses of 300 feet (91 metres) or more. Estimated well yields from much of the surficial outwash in western Waukesha County exceed 500 gallons per minute (31 litres per second). Estimated well yields from most of the Niagara aquifer, a dolomite as much as 325 feet (99 metres) thick in the eastern two-thirds of the county, exceed 50 gallons per minute (3.2 litres per second). The sandstone aquifer underlies the entire county and ranges in thickness from about 400 feet (120 metres) in the northwest corner to about 2,400 feet (730 metres) in the southeast corner. This aquifer yields more than 1,000 gallons per minute (63 litres per second) to wells over most of the county and is the principal source for municipal and subdivision water. Ground water in Waukesha County is of good quality and is suitable for most uses. Most of the water is a calcium magnesium bicarbonate type, is very hard [more than 180 mg/l (milligrams per litre) hardness], and requires softening for some uses. The ground water locally contains iron and manganese concentrations that exceed the limits (0.3 and 0.05 mg/l, respectively) recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service (1962, p. 7). Water high in sulfate and dissolved solids (saline water) is present locally in the Niagara and sandstone aquifers. Water from one well contained excessive nitrate (more than 45 mg/l). With one exception, wells sampled at irregular intervals indicated no significant changes in their chemical characteristics with time. About 24.3 million gallons per day (1.06 cubic metres per second) of ground water was pumped in the county in 1970. Sixty-two percent was withdrawn from the sandstone aquifer. More than one-half of the latter amount was for domestic use, and more than one-third was for industrial and commercial uses.

Wisconsin↗
USGS1977

Geohydrology of Muscatine Island, Muscatine County, Iowa

Muscatine Island is a wide segment of the west bank of the Mississippi River flood plain that covers about 50 square miles in Muscatine and Louisa Counties; the project area encompasses the 30 square miles in Muscatine County. The flood plain is underlain by thick, permeable alluvial deposits that comprise a water-table aquifer that is developed extensively for water supplies in the area. The aquifer consists principally of sand and gravel, interbedded with lenses of silt and clay. Its saturated thickness ranges from about 40 to 140 feet. The transmissivity and storage coefficients of the aquifer range from about 20,000 ft. 2 /day and 0.15. respectively, in the western part of the Island to about 39,500 ft.2/day and 0.24 in the eastern part. The amount of water stored in the aquifer, under normal conditions, is about 100 billion gallons. Discharge from the aquifer is principally by pumpage, which has increased from about 1 mgd (million gallons per day) in 1906 to about 37 mgd in 1970. About 2.5 mgd is normally lost to seepage and evapotranspiration along a 9-mile reach of Muscatine Slough in Muscatine County. About 0.9 mgd is discharged by evaporation from gravel pits. Recharge to the aquifer is by induced infiltration from the Mississippi River, seepage from the river during major flood events, precipitation, and seepage from the underlying limestone bedrock. Induced infiltration provides about 80 to 85 percent of the water withdrawn from the principal pumping centers along the river and also replaces about 70 to 80 percent of the water that is evaporated from the gravel pits; this amounted to about 30 mgd in 1971. Additional significant recharge from the river occurs during major floods, when prolonged high stages provide the head for considerable underflow to the aquifer. Recharge from precipitation on the Island was calculated to average about 6inches per year or about 0.3 mgd per square mile. Seepage from bedrock is significant and is attributed to the increased head differential between the alluvial and bedrock aquifers in the areas of major pumping. The chemical constituents of water from the aquifer are generally within the recommended limits established by the U. S. Public Health Service for drinking water. Stresses on the hydrologic system have affected the position and configuration of the water table and the chemical quality of the ground water. The large-scale withdrawals, which began at the principal pumping centers in 1946, have caused the water table to decline from about 1 foot in the interior of the Island to about 5 feet near the edges of the main pumping centers; the decline was more than 8 feet under the pumping centers. A slight increase in hardness of water from riverward wells in the pumping centers is attributed to the induced infiltration of slightly harder river water; a noticeable increase in hardness and iron content in water from landward wells is attributed to seepage of water from the bedrock. In the central irrigated area, which is underlain by very permeable, highly drained soils that are mulched with organic fertilizers, the nitrate content of the ground water is as high as 46 mg/l (milligrams per liter). Land-use practices have had, and probably will continue to have, an impact on the quality and quantity of water available in the system. The hydrologic system in 1971 was in dynamic equilibrium or in near-equilibrium with the stresses imposed on it to that date. This equilibrium would be disturbed by any additional stresses on the system and water levels would change until a new equilibrium was established. The effects of future stresses can be reasonably predicted by developing a digital model of the system. The data to develop such a model are available in this report. Continued and expanded monitoring of water levels would provide data for better model verification. Periodic monitoring of nitrate and other chemical constituents would permit early detection of changes in concentration before the concentrations reached excessive levels.

Iowa↗
USGS1963

Quantitation of microorganic compounds in waters of the Great Lakes by adsorption on activated carbon

Microorganic compounds in waters of Lakes Michigan and Huron have been sampled by adsorption on activated carbon in filters installed aboard the M/V Cisco and at the Hammond Bay Laboratory of the U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. The organic compounds were eluted from the carbon according to techniques developed at the U.S. Public Health Service. On the assumption that chloroform eluates represent less polar compounds from industrial sources and alcohol eluates the more polar varieties of natural origin, plots of chloroform eluates against alcohol eluates appear to be useful in judging water qualities. Based upon these criteria, the data in this paper indicate that both the waters of northern Lake Michigan and of Lake Huron, in the vicinity of Hammond Bay, Michigan, are relatively free from pollution. The limnetic waters of Lake Michigan showed a particularly high ratio of alcohol to chloroform eluates. Data for monthly samples indicated that this ratio fluctuated seasonally. The periodicity of the fluctuations was similar to those of lake levels and water temperatures.

Conference Paper↗
USGS2009

A review of plague persistence with special emphasis on fleas

Sylvatic plague is highly prevalent during infrequent epizootics that ravage the landscape of western North America. During these periods, plague dissemination is very efficient. Epizootics end when rodent and flea populations are decimated and vectored transmission declines. A second phase (enzootic plague) ensues when plague is difficult to detect from fleas, hosts or the environment, and presents less of a threat to public health. Recently, researchers have hypothesized that the bacterium (Yersinia pestis) responsible for plague maintains a continuous state of high virulence and thus only changes in transmission efficiency explain the shift between alternating enzootic and epizootic phases. However, if virulent transmission becomes too inefficient, strong selection might favor an alternate survival strategy. Another plausible non-exclusive hypothesis, best supported from Asian field studies, is that Y. pestis persists (locally) at foci by maintaining a more benign relationship within adapted rodents during the long expanses of time between outbreaks. From this vantage, it can revert to the epizootic (transmission efficient) form. Similarly, in the United States (US), enzootic plague persistence has been proposed to develop sequestered within New World rodent carriers. However, the absence of clear support for rodent carriers in North America has encouraged a broader search for alternative explanations. A telluric plague existence has been proposed. However, the availability of flea life stages and their hosts could critically supplement environmental plague sources, or fleas might directly represent a lowlevel plague reservoir. Here, we note a potentially pivotal role for fleas. These epizootic plague vectors should be closely studied with newer more exacting methods to determine their potential to serve as participants in or accomplices to a plague persistence reservoir.

Journal of Vector Borne Diseases↗
USGS2018

Everglades Invasive Reptile and Amphibian Monitoring Program

The Everglades Invasive Reptile and Amphibian Monitoring Program (EIRAMP) provides a scientific framework for integrated EDRR, outreach, and monitoring for invasive wildlife in South Florida. EIRAMP also monitors native reptiles, amphibians and mammals to assess impacts of invasive species. South Florida has more nonnative species of reptiles and amphibians than anywhere else in the world. Some of these species become invasive and harm the environment, economy, and/or public health. Many are predators that can severely impact native species and ecosystems. Controlling and monitoring these invaders are essential to the success of multi-billion dollar Everglades restoration efforts. Prevention and eradication are the most cost-effective ways to limit impacts of invasive species (see Figure 1). Once populations are widely established, management becomes expensive, long-term, and often ineffective. Early detection and rapid response (EDRR) offers the best chance to get ahead of the invasion curve and successfully contain or eradicate populations while they are still localized.

Florida↗
USGS2019

2017 Monitoring and tracking wet nitrogen deposition at Rocky Mountain National Park

The Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE), the National Park Service (NPS), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the Nitrogen Deposition Reduction Plan (NDRP) in 2007 to address the effects and trends of nitrogen deposition at Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP). The agencies chose a glidepath approach to reduce wet nitrogen deposition to a level of 1.5 kilograms of nitrogen per hectare per year (kg N/ha/yr) by the year 2032 to protect sensitive ecosystems within RMNP from adverse effects. Another goal of the NDRP is to “reverse the trend of increasing nitrogen deposition at the park.” Trends in wet deposition data were analyzed at three sites in RMNP and three regional sites outside of the park. Wet nitrogen deposition (5-year rolling average) at Loch Vale in RMNP was 3.3 kg N/ha/yr, which is above the glidepath (2.4 kg N/ha/yr) in 2017. Wet nitrogen deposition has not decreased at RMNP or other sites in the region over the long-term. Ammonium concentrations showed a statistically significant increasing trend at all sites and nitrate concentrations showed a significant decreasing trend at four of the five sites over the period of record. In more recent years (2011-2017), wet nitrogen deposition showed no significant trend at monitoring sites in RMNP. Ammonium concentrations also showed no significant trend over the short-term, however nitrate concentrations did significantly decrease at two of the six sites.

Colorado↗
USGS2019

Bayesian statistics for beginners: A step-by-step approach

Bayesian statistics is currently undergoing something of a renaissance. At its heart is a method of statistical inference in which Bayes' theorem is used to update the probability for a hypothesis as more evidence or information becomes available. It is an approach that is ideally suited to making initial assessments based on incomplete or imperfect information; as that information is gathered and disseminated, the Bayesian approach corrects or replaces the assumptions and alters its decision-making accordingly to generate a new set of probabilities. As new data/evidence becomes available the probability for a particular hypothesis can therefore be steadily refined and revised. It is very well-suited to the scientific method in general and is widely used across the social, biological, medical, and physical sciences. Key to this book's novel and informal perspective is its unique pedagogy, a question and answer approach that utilizes accessible language, humor, plentiful illustrations, and frequent reference to on-line resources. Bayesian Statistics for Beginners is an introductory textbook suitable for senior undergraduate and graduate students, professional researchers, and practitioners seeking to improve their understanding of the Bayesian statistical techniques they routinely use for data analysis in the life and medical sciences, psychology, public health, business, and other fields.

Book↗
USGS1974

Preliminary findings of a leachate study on two landfills in Suffolk County, New York

Plumes of leachate-enriched ground water extend 10,600 and 5,000 ft (3,200 and 1,500 m) downgradient from landfills in the towns of Babylon and Islip, respectively, and extend vertically beneath the landfills to the base of the upper glacial aquifer, whose thickness ranges from 71 to 77 ft (22-24 m) at the Babylon site and is 170 ft (52 m) at the Islip site. The Babylon and Islip landfills were started in 1947 and 1933, respectively. The quantities of ground water in the plumes are 2X10 9 gal (8X10 6 m 3 ) at Babylon and 1X10 9 gal (4X10 6 m 3 ) at Islip. Differences in quantity of water in the plumes and length of the plumes may result partly from a slower rate of refuse accumulation at Islip than at Babylon; however, the rate of travel for the front of the Islip plume is considerably less than the prevailing groundwater velocity would indicate. Distance traveled by the front of the Islip plume was roughly one-third the distance indicated by the calculated minimum ground-water velocity and may result from greater vertical travel distance in the upper glacial aquifer at Islip. Concentrations of HCO 3 - , Cl - , and SO 4 - 2 in the leachate-enriched ground water are higher than those in ambient ground water. Concentrations of Fe and Mn in the plumes are as much as 400,000 μ g/1 and 200,000 μ g/1, but concentrations of other metals, including Zn (220 μ g/1), do not exceed the U.S. Public Health Service drinking-water standards. The concentration of NH 4 + , the predominant nitrogen species in plume water, is usually more than 10 percent of the total cations in plume water and is greater than NH 4 + concentrations in ambient ground water; concentrations of NO 3 - in plume water are less than those in ambient ground water at Babylon and at some locations in Islip.

New York↗
USGS2022

Management of diseases in free-ranging wildlife populations

Diseases are increasingly threatening the conservation of wildlife species. Spillover of pathogens into humans and domestic animals may negatively impact public health and the economy, requiring increased proactive management actions. The North American Wildlife Management Model provides the philosophical basis for managing wildlife and underpins all management options. Diseases in wildlife populations may be managed by manipulation of the environment, manipulation of the host, manipulation of the agent, and modification of human behavior. Important considerations include setting management goals, and metrics to assess success. Future strategies include using systems and One Health approaches to develop interventions that optimize outcomes for humans, animals, and the environment.

Book chapter↗
USGS1991

Chemicals for worldwide aquaculture

Regulations and therapeutants or other safe chemicals that are approved or acceptable for use in the aquaculture industry in the US, Canada, Europe and Japan are presented, discussing also compounds that are unacceptable for aquaculture. Chemical use practices that could affect public health are considered and details given regarding efforts to increase the number of registered and acceptable chemicals.

Book chapter↗
USGS2001

Dust in the wind: long range transport of dust in the atmosphere and its implications for global public and ecosystem health

Movement of soil particles in atmospheres is a normal planetary process. Images of Martian dust devils (wind-spouts) and dust storms captured by NASA's Pathfinder have demonstrated the significant role that storm activity plays in creating the red atmospheric haze of Mars. On Earth, desert soils moving in the atmosphere are responsible for the orange hues in brilliant sunrises and sunsets. In severe dust storm events, millions of tons of soil may be moved across great expanses of land and ocean. An emerging scientific interest in the process of soil transport in the Earth's atmosphere is in the field of public and ecosystem health. This article will address the benefits and the potential hazards associated with exposure to particle fallout as clouds of desert dust traverse the globe.

Global Change and Human Health↗