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USGS1998

Surface-water quality at fixed sites in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages, Wisconsin and Michigan, and the effects of natural and human factors, 1993-95

Streamwater samples were collected from April 1993 through July 1995 at 11 fixed sites in the Western Lake Michigan Drainages Study Unit of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program. Water samples were collected monthly at all Fixed Sites, and an additional two to four samples were collected each year during periods of high flow. Streamflow was monitored continuously at the Fixed Sites for the duration of the study period. This report describes field techniques used to collect the water samples, and the analytical methods used for laboratory analyses, statistical analyses of the data, and an attempt to determine the effect of natural and anthropogenic factors on concentrations of nutrients and selected major ions and suspended solids. Locations of eight of the Fixed Sites were selected to represent areas with unique combinations of land use/land cover, surficial deposits, and bedrock geology and are referred to as 'indicator sites.' The remaining three sites were located near the mouths of major rivers and are referred to as 'integrator sites.' The integrator sites represent a large part of the total flow from the Study Unit to Green Bay and western Lake Michigan, and drain various combinations of land use, bedrock, and surficial deposits. These data indicate that land use and surficial deposits may be the primary factors affecting nitrate and total phosphorus concentrations in this Study Unit. Median concentrations of nitrate at the forested sites were less than the National Median Concentration (NMC), and those at urban fixed sites were similar to the NMC. Median nitrate concentrations at the Tomorrow River, North Branch Milwaukee River, and Duck Creek agricultural indicator sites were twice the NMC, but median concentrations at the remaining agricultural indicator sites were similar to the NMC. Nitrate concentrations at one agricultural indicator site exceeded the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) maximum contaminant level in three run-off samples in the growing seasons of 1994 and 1995. Median concentrations of total phosphorus at the forested indicator sites were below the NMC. Tomorrow River was the only agricultural indicator site where the median total-phosphorus concentration was less than the NMC; median concentrations at the remaining agricultural Fixed Sites were similar to the NMC and exceeded 0.1 mg/L, the USEPA suggested total-phosphorus concentration in flowing water. The USEPA recommends that total-phosphorus concentration not exceed this limit to discourage excessive aquatic plant growth in flowing waters. Median total-phosphorus concentration at the urban indicator site was less than the urban NMC. Median concentrations for both nitrate and total phosphorus at the mouth of the Fox River and the Milwaukee River integrator sites were similar to the NMC for the dominant land use, agriculture, within their basins, and were lower than that at the Menominee River integrator site with a dominant forest land use. During this study, potassium concentrations were generally highest in areas of clay-dominated surficial deposits, silica was generally highest in areas of sandy surficial deposits, iron generally highest in areas of igneous/metamorphic bedrock, and calcium generally highest in areas of carbonate bedrock. The highest median fluoride concentration occurred at an urban site that receives treated water.

Michigan, Wisconsin↗
USGS1997

Water-quality assessment of the Rio Grande Valley, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas: Summary and analysis of water-quality data for the basic-fixed-site network, 1993-95

The Rio Grande Valley study unit of the U.S. Geological Survey National Water-Quality Assessment Program collected monthly water- quality samples at a network of surface-water sites from April 1993 through September 1995. This basic-fixed-site network consisted of nine main-stem sites on the Rio Grande, five sites on tributaries of the Rio Grande, two sites on streams in the Rio Grande Valley study unit that are not directly tributary to the Rio Grande, and one site on a conveyance channel. During each monthly sampling, field properties were measured and samples were collected for the analysis of dissolved solids, major constituents, nutrients, selected trace elements, and suspended-sediment concentrations. During selected samplings, supplemental samples were collected for the analysis of additional trace elements, organic carbon, and/or pesticides. Spatial variations of dissolved-solids, major-constituent, and nutrient data were analyzed. The report presents summary statistics for the monthly water-quality data by sampling site and background information on the drainage basin upstream from each site. Regression equations are presented that relate dissolved-solids, major-constituent, and nutrient concentrations to streamflow, selected field properties, and time. Median instantaneous streamflow at each basic-fixed site ranged from 1.4 to 1,380 cubic feet per second. Median specific conductance at each basic-fixed site ranged from 84 to 1,680 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius, and median pH values ranged from 7.8 to 8.5. The water sampled at the basic-fixed sites generally was well oxygenated and had a median dissolved-oxygen percent of saturation range from 89 to 108. With the exception of Rio Grande above mouth of Trinchera Creek, near Lasauses, Colorado, dissolved-solids concentrations in the main stem of the Rio Grande generally increased in a downstream direction. This increase is from natural sources such as ground-water inflow and evapotranspiration and from anthropogenic sources such as irrigation- return flows, urban runoff, and wastewater-treatment plant discharges. The smallest median dissolved-solids concentration detected at a basic- fixed site was 58 milligrams per liter and the largest was 1,240 milligrams per liter. The spatial distribution of calcium, magnesium, sodium, sulfate, chloride, and fluoride was similar to the spatial distribution of dissolved solids. The spatial distribution of potassium and bicarbonate varied slightly from that of dissolved solids. Median silica concentrations generally decreased in a downstream direction. Of all cations, calcium and sodium had the largest concentrations at most basic-fixed sites. Bicarbonate and sulfate were the anions having the largest concentrations at most sites. The largest median silica concentration was at Rito de los Frijoles in Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico, where silica composed approximately 50 percent of the dissolved solids. The largest concentrations and largest median concentrations of dissolved-nutrient analytes were detected at Santa Fe River above Cochiti Lake, New Mexico, and Rio Grande at Isleta, New Mexico. The relatively large dissolved-nutrient concentrations at these sites probably were due to discharges from wastewater-treatment plants and urban runoff. The largest concentrations and largest median concentrations of total ammonia plus organic nitrogen and total phosphorus were detected at Rio Puerco near Bernardo, New Mexico. The largest concentrations of these nutrients at this site were associated with runoff from summer thunderstorms. Dissolved-iron concentrations ranged from censored concentrations to 914 micrograms per liter. Median dissolved-iron concentrations ranged from 3 to 160 micrograms per liter.

Colorado, New Mexico, Texas↗
USGS1997

Water resources of Bannock Creek basin, southeastern Idaho

The potential for development of water resources in the Bannock Creek Basin is limited by water supply. Bannock Creek Basin covers 475 square miles in southeastern Idaho. Shoshone-Bannock tribal lands on the Fort Hall Indian Reservation occupy the northern part of the basin; the remainder of the basin is privately owned. Only a small amount of information on the hydrologic and water-quality characteristics of Bannock Creek Basin is available, and two previous estimates of water yield from the basin ranged widely from 45,000 to 132,500 acre-feet per year. The Shoshone-Bannock Tribes need an accurate determination of water yield and baseline water-quality characteristics to plan and implement a sustainable level of water use in the basin. Geologic setting, quantities of precipitation, evapotranspiration, surface-water runoff, recharge, and ground-water underflow were used to determine water yield in the basin. Water yield is the annual amount of surface and ground water available in excess of evapotranspiration by crops and native vegetation. Water yield from Bannock Creek Basin was affected by completion of irrigation projects in 1964. Average 1965-89 water yield from five subbasins in Bannock Creek Basin determined from water budgets was 60,600 acre-feet per year. Water yield from the Fort Hall Indian Reservation part of Bannock Creek Basin was estimated to be 37,700 acre-feet per year. Water from wells, springs, and streams is a calcium bicarbonate type. Concentrations of dissolved nitrite plus nitrate as nitrogen and fluoride were less than Maximum Contaminant Levels for public drinking-water supplies established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Large concentrations of chloride and nitrogen in water from several wells, springs, and streams likely are due to waste from septic tanks or stock animals. Estimated suspended-sediment load near the mouth of Bannock Creek was 13,300 tons from December 1988 through July 1989. Suspended-sediment discharge was greatest during periods of high streamflow.

Idaho↗
USGS1999

Ground-water quality in alluvial basins that have minimal urban development, south-central Arizona

Ground-water quality data (1917-96) from 772 wells in 16 alluvial basins that have minimal urban development were used to determine the effect of nonurban factors on ground-water quality in south- central Arizona. Characterization of the spatial variability of ground-water quality within and among alluvial basins that have minimal urban development will provide a baseline to which water- quality problems associated with urbanization can be compared. Four water-type categories--calcium carbonate, calcium mixed anion, sodium carbonate, and sodium chloride--were used to classify the 13 alluvial basins for which adequate data were available. Ground-water quality was compared to U.S. Environmental Protaection Agency maximum contaminant levels for drinking water, depth of well, and depth to top of perforated interval for five alluvial basins that represented the four water-type categories. Exceedances of maximum contaminant levels for fluoride and nitrate occurred in three and four basins, respectively, of the five selected basins. Specific-conductance values for ground water in the five selected basins tend to increase in a northwesterly direction toward the central part of Arizona as the extent of evaporite deposits increases. The results of this study, which are part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment Program, can be used to determine the effects of urban land-use activities on ground-water quality in similar hydrogeologic conditions and may be the best indicator available for nonurban ground-water quality in the region.

Water-Resources Investigations Report↗
USGS2000

Water quality of selected springs and public-supply wells, Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota, 1992-97

This report presents results of a water-quality study for the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota. The study was a cooperative effort between the U.S. Geological Survey and the Water Resources Department of the Oglala Sioux Tribe. Discharge and water-quality data were collected during 1992-97 for 14 contact springs located in the northwestern part of the Reservation. Data were collected to evaluate potential alternative sources of water supply for the village of Red Shirt, which currently obtains water of marginal quality from a well completed in the Inyan Kara aquifer. During 1995-97, water-quality data also were collected for 44 public-supply wells that serve about one-half of the Reservation's population. Quality-assurance sampling was used to evaluate the precision and accuracy of environmental samples. Ten of the springs sampled contact the White River Group, and four contact the Pierre Shale. Springs contacting the White River Group range from calcium bicarbonate to sodium bicarbonate water types. Two springs contacting the Pierre Shale have water types similar to this; however, sulfate is the dominant anion for the other two springs. In general, springs contacting the White River Group are shown to have better potential as alternative sources of water supply for the village of Red Shirt than springs contacting the Pierre Shale. Nine of the springs with better water quality were sampled repeatedly; however, only minor variability in water quality was identified. Six of these nine springs, of which five contact the White River Group, probably have the best potential for use as water supplies. Discharge from any of these six springs probably would provide adequate water supply for Red Shirt during most periods, based on a limited number of discharge measurements collected. Concentrations of lead exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) action level of 15 µg/L for three of these six springs. Five of these six springs also had arsenic concentrations that exceeded 10 µg/L, which could be problematic if the current maximum contaminant level (MCL) is lowered. Blending of water from one or more springs with water from the existing Inyan Kara well may be an option to address concerns regarding both quantity and quality of existing and potential sources. All nine springs that were sampled for indicator bacteria had positive detections on one or more occasions during presumptive tests. Although USEPA standards for bacteria apply only to public-water supplies, local residents using spring water for domestic purposes need to be aware of the potential health risks associated with consuming untreated water. One spring contacting the White River Group and two springs contacting the Pierre Shale exceeded 15 pCi/L for gross alpha; these values do not necessarily constitute exceedances of the MCL, which excludes radioactivity contributed by uranium and radon. Additional sampling using different analysis techniques would be needed to conclusively determine if any samples exceeded this MCL. Nine springs were sampled for selected pesticides and tritium. The pesticides atrazine, carbaryl, and 2,4-D were not detected in any of the samples. The nine springs were analyzed for tritium in order to generally assess the age of the water and to determine if concentrations exceeded the MCL established for gross beta-particle activity. Tritium results indicated two springs are composed primarily of water recharged prior to atmospheric testing of nuclear bombs and two other springs have a relatively large percentage of test-era water. The remaining five springs had tritium values that indicated some percentage of test-era water; however, additional sampling would be needed to determine whether water is predominantly pre- or post-bomb age. Of the 44 public-supply wells sampled, 42 are completed in the Arikaree aquifer, one is completed in an alluvial aquifer, and one is completed in the Inyan Kara aquifer. Water from the alluvial well is a sodium bicarbonate water type, water from Arikaree aquifer ranges from calcium bicarbonate to sodium bicarbonate types, and water from the Inyan Kara well is a calcium sulfate bicarbonate type. Of the 44 wells sampled, 28 (64 percent) tested positive for indicator bacteria in presumptive tests. Because these were single samples that generally were collected upstream from chemical treatment feeders, positive detections do not necessarily constitute exceedances of drinking-water standards. A single sample from an Arikaree well exceeded the MCL for arsenic of 50 µg/L. Arsenic exceeded 10 µg/L for six additional Arikaree wells and for the alluvial well and the Inyan Kara well, which could be problematic if the current MCL is lowered. The alluvial well also exceeded the secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) for dissolved solids, which is non-enforceable, and the action level for lead. The Inyan Kara well exceeded the SMCL's for iron and for manganese and the MCL of 5 pCi/L for radium-226 and 228 combined. Several Arikaree wells exceeded SMCL's for either pH, sulfate, dissolved solids, iron, or manganese. One Arikaree well exceeded the MCL of 4.0 mg/L for fluoride and another exceeded the MCL of 10 mg/L for nitrite plus nitrate. Ten Arikaree wells equalled or exceeded 15 pCi/L for gross alpha; however, these values do not necessarily constitute exceedances of the MCL, which excludes radioactivity contributed by uranium and radon. Additional sampling using different analysis techniques would be needed to conclusively determine if any samples exceeded this MCL. Eight wells, all from the Arikaree aquifer, equalled or exceeded the proposed MCL of 20 µg/L for uranium and 33 wells (75 percent) equalled or exceeded one-half of the proposed MCL. Although this standard has only been proposed, additional information regarding the extent of elevated uranium concentrations in the Arikaree aquifer, and the geochemical processes involved, may be beneficial. It was determined from analyses of uranium isotope data for five wells that the source of elevated uranium concentrations is naturally occurring, rather than anthropogenic.

South Dakota↗
USGS1951

Public water supplies in western Texas

This report gives a summarized description of the public water supplies in a region comprising 81 counties of western Texas and lying generally west of the hundredth meridian. It is the fourth and last of this series of reports concerning the public water supplies of the State. It gives the available data for each of 142 communities, as follows: The population of the community; the name of the official from whom the information was obtained; the ownership of the waterworks, whether private or municipal; the source of supply, whether ground water or surface water; the amount of water consumed; the facilities for storage; the number of customers served; the character of the chemical and sanitary treatment of the water, if any; and the chemical analyses of the water. Where ground water is used the following also are given. Records of wells, including drillers' logs; character of the pumping equipment; and yield of the wells and water-level records where they are available. Of the 142 public supplies, 133 are obtained from ground water, 5 from surface water, and 4 from a combination of both. The total amount of water . used for public supply in the region averages about 78,000,000 gallons a day. Of this about 61,000,000 gallons a day is ground water and about 17,000,000 gallons a day is surface water. The ground-water resources of the region from which public water supplies are drawn are in rocks that range in age from Permian to Quaternary. The Ogallala formation of Tertiary age (Pliocene), which covers about 35,000 square miles of the High Plains in Texas, is the most important ground-water reservoir in the region. The formation furnishes water for 78 public supplies and for irrigating about 1,000,000 acres of land. The amount of water used for irrigating amounted to about 1,000,000 acre-feet in 1948. The Trinity and Fredericksburg groups of Lower Cretaceous age supply ground water in the western part of the Edwards Plateau, which constitutes an area of more than 22,000 square miles. These formations furnish small to large supplies to 20 municipalities. Sands of the Dockum group of Triassic refurnish meager to moderate supplies of water for 10 municipalities in areas east of the southern part of the High Plains and in the northern Pecos Valley in Texas. Local alluvial, bolson, or volcanic deposits furnish ground water in small to large amounts in scattered localities in the remainder of the region. The Permian rocks are of little importance as a source of ground water for public supply, owing to the highly mineralized water in them. The results of the chemical analyses of 206 samples of water obtained from the public supplies of the region are given in this report. The analyses are reported in parts per million and in equivalents per million for those ions entering into ionic balance. Of the samples analyzed 57 percent contained silica in excess of 20 parts per million; about 9 percent contained iron in excess of 0.3 part per million; 78 percent had hardness in excess of 200 parts per million; about 18 percent contained sulfate in excess of 250 parts per million; 10 percent contained chloride in excess of 250 parts per million; 3 percent contained nitrate in excess of 20 parts per million; 37 percent contained fluoride in excess of 2 parts per million; and 12 percent contained dissolved solids in excess of 1,000 parts per million.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1955

Geology and ground-water resources of the Douglas basin, Arizona, with a section on chemical quality of the ground water

The Douglas basin is part of a large northwest-trending intermontane valley, known as the Sulphur Spring Valley, which lies in southeastern Arizona, and extends into northeastern Sonora, Mexico. Maturely dissected mountains rise abruptly from long alluvial slopes and culminate in peaks 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the valley floor, Bedrock in the mountain areas confines drainage on the east and west, and an arc of low hills to the north separates the basin from the Willcox basin of the Sulphur Spring Valley. Drainage of the 1,200 square miles in the Douglas basin is southward into Mexico through Whitewater Draw. The mountains include igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks ranging in age from pre-Cambrian to Tertiary, including Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks that total about 10,000 feet in thickness. The older rocks have been metamorphosed, and all the bedrock has been affected by igneous intrusion, largely in Mesozoic time, and by structural movements, largely in Cenozoic time and extending into the Quaternary period. By the early part of Cenozoic time the major structural features were formed, and mountain ranges had been uplifted above the valley trough along northwest-trending fault zones. Since that time the physiographic features have resulted through erosion of the mountain blocks and the deposition, in places, of more than 2,800 feet of unconsolidated rock debris in the valley. Ground-water supplies of the Douglas basin are developed largely in the saturated zone of the valley-fill sediments. The ground water in the valley fill occurs in thin lenses and strata of sand and gravel, which are interbedded with large thicknesses of silt and day. Scattered gypsum beds and extensive caliche deposits appear at the surface and occur within the valley fill at various depths. Although the valley-fill sediments are as much as 2,800 feet thick, the uppermost 300 feet or so are the most permeable. Ground water originates as precipitation in the mountain areas. The water collects in streams that lose much of their flow into the coarse sediments that fringe the mountains. Part of the water ultimately percolates into the zone of saturation. High evaporation rates, vegetative use, and the presence of caliche and clay at shallow depth in the interstream areas of the valley floor prevent important recharge of the ground-water reservoir from direct rainfall or seepage of water applied for irrigation. The total recharge into the ground-water reservoir of the Douglas basin was about 20,000 acre-feet in 1951. Ground water is discharged from the basin by evapotranspiration, by effluent seepage into Whitewater Draw and underflow out of the basin, and by pumping. In 1951, the total amount of ground water discharged was about 50,000 acre-feet, of which more than 41,000 acre-feet was pumped from wells. Ground water used in excess of recharge is withdrawn from storage, causing a decline in the water table. Maximum declines have occurred in the heavily pumped Elfrida area, where a decline of more than 11 feet occurred in the 5- year period 1947-51, inclusive. Most irrigation wells in the Douglas basin are less than 200 feet in depth and usually produce less than 400 gpm (gallons per minute). The average specific capacity of the wells is about 12 gpm per foot of drawdown. Although water in some parts of the basin is artesian, all irrigation wells must be pumped. Ground water in the basin is generally of excellent to good quality for irrigation use, In small areas along the southern part of Whitewater Draw and east of Douglas the ground water is high in dissolved-solids content. Although most of the water is hard, it is generally satisfactory for domestic use. In many areas the fluoride content is more than 1.5 ppm (parts per million).

Arizona↗
USGS1960

Geology and ground-water resources of the Rawlins area, Carbon County, Wyoming

The Rawlins area in west-central Carbon County, south-central Wyoming includes approximately 634 square miles of plains and valleys grading into relatively rugged uplifts. The climate is characterized by low precipitation, rapid evaporation, and a wide range of temperature. Railroading and ranching are the principal occupations in the area. The exposed rocks in the area range in age from Precambrian through Recent. The older formations are exposed in the uplifted parts, the oldest being exposed along the apex of the Rawlins uplift. The formations dip sharply away from the anticlines and other uplifts and occur in the subsurface throughout the remainder of the area. The Cambrian rocks (undifferentiated), Madison limestone, Tensleep sandstone, Sun dance formation, Cloverly formation, Frontier formation, and Miocene and Pliocene rocks (undifferentiated) yield water to domestic and stock wells in the area. In the vicinity of the Rawlins uplift, the rocks of Cambrian age, Madison limestone, and Tensleep sandstone yield water to a few public-supply wells. The Cloverly formation yields water to public-supply wells in the Miller Hill and Sage Creek basin area. Wells that tap the Madison limestone, Tensleep sandstone, and Cloverly formation yield water under sufficient artesian pressure to flow at the land surface. The Browns Park formation yields water to springs that supply most of the Rawlins city water and supply water for domestic and stock use. Included on the geologic map are location of wells and test wells, depths to water below land surface, and location of springs. Depths to water range from zero in the unconsolidated deposits along the valley of Sugar Creek at the southern end of the Rawlins uplift to as much as 129 feet below the land surface in the Tertiary sedimentary rocks along the Continental Divide in the southern part of the area. The aquifers are recharged principally by precipitation that falls upon the area, by percolation from streams and ponds, and by movement of ground water from adjacent areas. Water is discharged from the ground-water reservoir by evaporation and transpiration, by seeps and springs, through wells, and by underflow out of the area. Although most water supplies in the area are obtained from springs, some domestic, stock, and public supplies are obtained from drilled wells, many yielding water under artesian pressure, and some flowing. Dissolved solids in the water from several geologic sources, ranging from 181 to 6,660 parts per million (ppm), indicate the varied chemical quality of ground water in the Rawlins area. Water from the Cambrian rocks, Tensleep sandstone, Cloverly formation, Frontier formation, Browns Park formation, and Miocene and Pliocene rocks is generally suitable for domestic and stock use. However, water yielded to the only well sampled in the lower part of the Frontier formation contained a high concentration of fluoride. Water from the rocks mentioned above contains less than 1,000 ppm of dissolved solids but in some places may contain iron in troublesome amounts. Water from the Madison limestone and Tensleep sandstone combined, Permian rocks, and Sundance formation contains more than 1,000 ppm of dissolved solids. Water in the Sundance, Cloverly, and Frontier :formations is very soft. More ground water can be obtained in the Rawlins area than is now being used. Many springs are undeveloped, and water can be obtained from additional wells without unduly lowering ground-water levels.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1961

Ground Water at Grant Village Site, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming

On behalf of the National Park Service, the U.S. Geological Survey during the summer of 1959 made a study of ground-water conditions in the area of the Grant Village site, along the shore of the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake, 1 to 2 miles south of the present facilities at West Thumb. The water supply for the present development at West Thumb is obtained from Duck Lake, but the quantity of water available from this source probably will be inadequate for the planned development at Grant Village. During the investigation, 11 auger holes were bored and 6 test wells were drilled. Aquifer tests by pumping and bailing methods were made at two of the test wells. All material penetrated in the auger holes and test wells is of Quaternary age except the welded tuff of possible Pliocene age that was penetrated in the lower part of test well 4. Small to moderate quantities of water were obtained from the test wells in the area. Test well 2 yielded 35 gpm (gallons per minute) at a temperature of nearly 100 deg F. Test well 6 yielded about 15 gpm at a temperature of 48 deg F. The yield of this well might be increased by perforation of additional sections of casing, followed by further development of the well. Water from the other four test wells was of inadequate quantity, too highly mineralized, or too warm to be effectively utilized. Most of the ground water sampled had high concentrations of silica and iron, and part of the water was excessively high in fluoride content. Otherwise, the ground water was of generally suitable quality for most uses. The most favorable area for obtaining water supplies from wells is near the lakeshore, where a large part of the water pumped would be ground-water flow diverted from its normal discharge into the lake. Moderate quantities of relatively cool water of fairly good quality may be available near the lakeshore between test wells 5 and 6 and immediately east of test well 6.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1963

Geology and ground-water resources of Hale County, Texas

Hale County, in the southern High Plains of Texas, has an area of 1,033 square miles. The land surface is one of low relief, and the regional slope is about 10 feet per mile toward the southeast. Surface runoff drains into numerous playa lakes and two intermittent streams: Running Water Draw and the Double Mountain Fork of the Brazos River. The Ogallala formation of Tertiary age is the principal water-bearing formation in the county. The Ogallala lies on red beds of Triassic age throughout most of the county and on rocks of Cretaceous age in approximately the southern fifth of the county. The Triassic and underlying Permian rocks are not fresh water bearing in the county. The Cretaceous rocks, on the other hand, are in direct hydraulic connection with the Ogallala, and a few wells tapping them yield large quantities of water from cracks and solution channels in the limestones. The Ogallala formation is overlain by thin deposits of sand, gravel, silt, and clay of Pleistocene and Recent age. These younger rocks are, for the most part, above the water table and, consequently, are not water bearing. The water in the Ogallala formation occurs principally as unconfined water in layers and lenses of sand and gravel. The hydraulic properties of the Ogallala were determined by a long-term aquifer test at Plainview, where coefficients of transmissibility ranging from 24,000 to 38,000 gpd per foot were measured. The coefficient of storage was determined to be about 0.14. The aquifer is recharged from precipitation in Hale County and in the southern High Plains northwest of the county. The water moves generally southeastward at about 2 inches a day. Ground water in Hale County is used principally for irrigation. In 1955 more than 3,700 wells were used to irrigate 470,000 acres; about 560,000 acre-feet of water was pumped. About 5,000 acre-feet was pumped for other purposes, including municipal, industrial, stock, and domestic uses. The water in the Ogallala formation in Hale County is suitable chemically for irrigation and most other uses; however, it should be softened for more satisfactory domestic use. The high silica content indicates that the water may be unsuitable for use in boilers. The fluoride content is excessive. It is estimated that in 1955 about 39 million acre-feet of water was in storage in the Ogallala formation in Hale County; however, only about 16 million is theoretically available to wells, and a somewhat smaller amount is practically available. About 3 million acre-feet was removed from storage during 1938-55. Water levels in wells have declined more or less steadily since 1938, and it is apparent that the ground-water resources of the county are insufficient to support large-scale perennial irrigation such as that of 1955.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1979

Availability and quality of ground water, southern Ute Indian Reservation, southwestern Colorado

Population growth and the potential development of subsurface mineral resources have increased the need for information on the availability and quality of ground water on the Southern Ute Indian Reservation. The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Southern Ute Tribal Council, the Four Corners Regional Planning Commission, and the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs, conducted a study during 1974-76 to assess the ground-water resources of the reservation. Water occurs in aquifers in the Dakota Sandstone, Mancos Shale, Mesaverde Group, Lewis Shale, Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, Fruitland Formation, Kirtland Shale, Animas and San Jose Formations, and terrace and flood-plain deposits. Well yields from sandstone and shale aquifers are small, generally in the range from 1 to 10 gallons per minute with maximum reported yields of 75 gallons per minute. Well yields from terrace deposits generally range from 5 to 10 gallons per minute with maximum yields of 50 gallons per minute. Well yields from flood-plain deposits are as much as 25 gallons per minute but average 10 gallons per minute. Water quality in aquifers depends in part on rock type. Water from sandstone, terrace, and flood-plain aquifers is predominantly a calcium bicarbonate type, whereas water from shale aquifers is predominantly a sodium bicarbonate type. Water from rocks containing interbeds of coal or carbonaceous shales may be either a calcium or sodium sulfate type. Dissolved-solids concentrations of ground water ranged from 115 to 7,130 milligrams per liter. Water from bedrock aquifers is the most mineralized, while water from terrace and flood-plain aquifers is the least mineralized. In many water samples collected from bedrock, terrace, and flood-plain aquifers, the concentrations of arsenic, chloride, dissolved solids, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrate, selenium, and sulfate exceeded U.S. Public Health Service (1962) recommended limits for drinking water. Selenium in the ground water in excess of U.S. Public Health Service (1962) recommended limit of 10 micrograms per liter for drinking water occurs throughout the reservation but principally in the central part. Of the 265 wells and springs sampled, 74 contained water with selenium concentrations in excess of the recommended limit. Selenium concentrations exceeded 10 micrograms per liter principally in water from aquifers in the San Jose and Animas Formations. The maximum selenium concentration determined during the study was 13,000 micrograms per liter in a sample obtained from the San Jose Formation. The only known documented case of human selenium poisoning caused by drinking ground water occurred on the reservation.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1963

Geology and ground-water resources of Winkler County, Texas

Winkler County, in west Texas, is adjacent to the southeast corner of New Mexico. Most of the county lies in the Pecos Valley; the remainder, in the northeastern part of the county, is part of the Llano Estacado, or the High Plains. Its principal industries are those related to the production and refining of oil, but ranching also is an important occupation. The county has an arid to semiarid climate, an area of about 887 square miles, and a population of about 12,000 in 1957. The principal fresh-water-bearing formations in Winkler County are the Cenozoic alluvium, which mantles the surface of most of the county, and the Santn Rosa sandstone of Late Triassic age. The alluvium is saturated at a depth ranging from a few feet below the land surface to about 150 feet, and the water is under water-table conditions. The Santa Rosa sandstone is fully saturated throughout most of the county, the water occurring under both unconfined (water-table) and confined (artesian) conditions. The underlying older formations contain water too highly mineralized for most uses, but they are important because water from these underlying beds, which is produced with the oil, is a source of pollution to the fresh-water aquifers. The formations also are a source of water to waterflooding projects for the secondary recovery of oil. The alluvium is replenished chiefly by precipitation, throughout the county. The sand-dune area in the eastern part is the most favorable area of natural recharge. The Santa Rosa sandstone is recharged through the alluvium where the two formations are in contact. Infiltration of saline water, which with oil and waste water has been produced from industrial plants, has been taking place through surface earthen pits. About 18 mgd (million gallons per day) of saline water was being produced from the many oil fields throughout the county during August 1957, and almost all this water was placed in surface pits. The Hendrick oil field alone produced about 14.5 mgd during that month, and an estimated 800,000 acre-feet from 1937 to 1957. About 20 million acre-feet of fresh water is stored in the explored groundwater aquifers of Winkler County, of which an estimated 5 to 7 million acrefeet can be practicably recovered. A daily average of about 8.2 million gallons (9,200 acre-feet per year) of fresh water was used in the county during 1956. Public and industrial use accounted for about 6.8 mgd; irrigation, domestic, and stock uses accounted for 1.4 mgd. Projects engaged in the secondary recovery of oil were the largest consumers, using an average of about 3 mgd of fresh water and about 2.7 mgd of saline water during 1956. Water wells drilled in the deep trough of Cenozoic alluvium south of Wink may yield 1,000 gpm (gallons per minute) or more. A pumping test of the alluvium in that area indicated a coefficient of transmissibility of about 25,000 gpd (gallons per day) per foot. Wells, other than windmill wells, drawing water from thinner sections of alluvium in the rest of the county yield between 100 and 300 gpm. Most of the wells in the Santa Rosa sandstone yield 30-400 gpm. Two municipal wells at Kermit that tap the Santa Rosa sandstone were tested at 1,200 and 1,875 gpm. The large yield of these wells probably results from the presence of fractures in the structurally deformed aquifer. Pumping tests in the Kermit area indicate that locally a full section of the Santa Rosa sandstone has an average coefficient of transmissibility of about 25,000 gpd per foot and a coefficient of storage of about 0.0003. The transmissibility in two other tested areas is much less. The chemical quality of the water in the principal aquifers is generally acceptable for industry and for public supply. About two-thirds of the samples collected from fresh-water wells had a dissolved-solids content of less than 1,000 ppm (parts per million) ; however, some samples in a few areas were hard and were high in fluoride and silica. Samples from wells in polluted areas contained dissolved solids ranging from about 1,400 to 71,100 ppm. Two comprehensive analyses of water samples from the Rustler formation showed a dissolved-solids content of 18,400 ppm. and 157,000 ppm. In most of the water produced with the oil in the Hendrick oil field, the content of dissolved solids ranged from about 4,000 to about 10,000 ppm. The water produced with the oil in the rest of the oil fields in Winkler County was mainly brine.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1965

Hydrologic conditions near Glendo, Platte County, Wyoming

The Glendo area of Platte and Carbon Counties, Wyo., about 250 square miles in extent, is in the Great Plains physiographic province. It is bordered on the west by the Laramie Range and on the east by the Hartville uplift. The North Platte River and Horseshoe and Middle Bear Creeks are the principal streams that drain the area. Gentle to steep hills, which lie between 4,450 and 6,360 feet above sea level, characterize the topography. Approximately 7,600 acres of land is cultivated in the Horseshoe Creek valley and 1,000 or more acres in the Cassa Flats of the North Platte River and Middle Bear Creek valleys. The average annual precipitation of 13.15 inches and the streamflow diverted for irrigation from Horseshoe Creek and the North Platte River are usually inadequate to sustain crops during the entire growing season. Sedimentary rocks, which underlie about 99 percent of the Glendo area, range in age from Cambrian(?) to Recent and in thickness from about 3,000 to 4,700 feet. Beds of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age dip steeply away from the Laramie Range and the Hartville uplift to form a large syncline, which is interrupted by the Elkhorn anticline in the central part of the area. Beds of Tertiary and Quaternary age that were deposited over the older structural features and later were partly removed by erosion have dips of less than 6 ? . The 'Converse sand' of local usage at the top of the Hartville Formation of Mississippian(7), Pennsylvanian, and Permian age, the White River Formation of Oligocene age, and the flood-plain deposits of Recent .age are the most important aquifers in the Glendo area. The Hartville Formation consists predominantly of hard limestone and dolomite and of lesser amounts of sandstone and shale ; its thickness ranges from 850 to 1,050 feet throughout most of the area. The 'Converse sand' is an artesian aquifer consisting of fine- to medium-grained porous sandstone having an average thickness of about 80 feet. Recharge to the Hartville Formation is mainly from seepage of surface water from Glendo Reservoir and Spring Creek; ground water is discharged from the formation to the overlying White River Formation and the alluvium in the North Platte River valley near Cassa and to four wells in the Horseshoe Creek valley. Flowing wells yielding from a few gallons per minute to 175 gpm (gallons per minute) or more from the 'Converse sand' can probably be located in an area from ? mile to 1? miles wide and about 4? miles long in the lower Horseshoe Creek valley. The depth to the 'Converse sand' in this area depends upon the topographic relief and distance from the outcrop and ranges from 250 to about 1,000 feet. The discharge induced by pumping a well in the aquifer in the 'Converse sand' would probably amount to about 2 gpm per foot of drawdown. Values of 2,000, 2,100, and 10,300 gpd (gallons per day) per ft for the coefficient of transmissibility of the 'Converse sand' were obtained from aquifer tests at three wells. The chemical analyses of samples from the Hartville Formation ('Converse. sand' included) indicate that the water in the formation is of fairly good quality and adequate for domestic, stock, and irrigation uses, although the fluoride content is low and the water is hard. The White River Formation is composed of as much as 575 feet of fractured siltstone and claystone, and the flood-plain deposits include up to 65 feet of silt, sand, and gravel. Precipitation is the main type of recharge to the rocks of Tertiary age. Recharge to the alluvium in the valleys of Horseshoe Creek and the North Platte River occurs mainly by seepage of ground water from. underlying beds, by infiltration of irrigation water, and by infiltration of streamflow as bank storage. Ground water is discharged naturally from the area by seepage to streams, by underflow, and by evapotranspiration and artificially by wells. In 1961, the total discharge from 38 wells in the White River and Arikaree Formations and 2

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1964

Public water supplies of the 100 largest cities of the United States, 1962

The public water supplies of the 100 largest cities in the United States (1960 U.S. Census) serve 9,650 million gallons of water per day (mgd) to 60 million people, which is 34 percent of the Nation's total population and 48 percent of the Nation's urban population. The amount of water used to satisfy the domestic needs as well as the needs of commerce and industry ranges from 13 mgd, which serves a population of 124,000, to 1,200 mgd, which serves a city of 8 million people. The water for the public supplies of these largest cities comes fro^n ground water wells and infiltration galleries and from surface water streams, reservoirs, and lakes. Twenty of the cities use ground water exclusively for public supplies, and 14 use a combination of ground and surface waters. Sixty-six cities use surface water solely; of these cities 37 depend solely upon reservoir water, and 20 depend solely upon natural streamflow. Water from the Great Lakes furnishes part or all of the water supply for 10 of these largest cities. Hardness of water, measured in parts per million (ppm), is an important factor in the usability of water supplies. Twenty-seven cities, serving a population of 8 million, have a raw-water hardness exceeding 180 ppm ("very hard"), but only 13 cities, serving a population of 3.7 million, have a "very hard" treated-water supply; and although 22 cities, serving about 10 million people, have a raw-water hardness ranging from 121 to 180 ppm ("hard"), only 16 cities, serving a population of 11 million, have a "hard" treated-water supply. Only 16 cities, serving a population of 16 million people, have a raw-water hardness ranging from 61 to 120 ppm ("moderately hard"), whereas 41 cities, serving a population of 22 million, have a treated-water supply having a hardness within this desirable range. A few cities that have a "soft" raw water add lime to control corrosion and consequently increase their water hardness to more than 61 ppm. Thirty cities, serving a population of about 23 million, have a treated-water supply with a hardness of less than 61 ppm. The dissolved-solids content in raw-water supplies of 27 cities, which serve a total population of slightly more than 21 million people, is 100 ppr^ or less. Thirty-eight cities serving a total population of 23 million people have raw-water supplies with a dissolved-solids content between 101 and 250 ppm, whereas 48 cities, serving a population of 28 million about half the population of these 1 2 PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES, 1962 cities furnish water having this range of dissolved solids. Twentv-nine cities serving a total population of 11 million people have raw-water supplies that contain between 251 to 500 ppm of dissolved solids. Because some o* these cities treat their water supply, 22 cities serving 8 million people furnish water having a dissolved-solids content between 251 and 500 ppm. Only six cities, serving a population of about iy2 million people, have raw-water supplies containing more than 500 ppm of dissolved solids; four of these cities soften the water and consequently reduce the dissolved-solids content. Thus, about 1 million people in three cities receive water containing more than 500 ppm of dissolved solids. Chemical analyses of treated-water supplies indicate that more than 90 percent of the supplies contain less than (a) 500 ppm of dissolved solids, (b) 100 ppm of sulfate, (c) 50 ppm each of calcium, sodium, and chloride, (d) 30 ppm of silica, (e) 20 ppm of magnesium, (f) 5 ppm each of potassium and nitrate, and (g) 1 ppm of fluoride. Spectrographic analyses, reported in micrograms per liter (/*g per 1), show that 87 percent of the treated-water supplies contain less than 500 /*g per 1 of aluminum and more than 90 percent of the supplies contain less than (a) 500 /*g per 1 of strontium, (b) 150 /*g per 1 of iron, (c) 50 ^g per 1 of lithium, (d) 10 /ug per 1 each of molybdenum, nickel, lead, and vanadium, and (e) 5 /*g per 1 each cf chromium, rubidium, and titanium. Radiochemical analyses of treated-water supplies reveal that the maximum beta activity of these supplies is 130 picocuries per liter (pc per 1) and the maximum activity due to radium content is 2.5 pe per 1, both of which are well under the recommended maximum limits for drinking water. The report is divided into two sections. The first describes the uses of water in large cities, the raw-water supplies available for public supplies, tl-<; major and minor constituents and the properties of water, the methods of analyses, the treatment of water, the effects of chemical treatment on constituents and properties of water, and the costs of water treatment. The second is a city-by-city inventory that gives (a) the population of the city, (b) the adjacent communities supplied by the city water system, (c) the total population served, (d) the sources of water supply (including auxiliary and emergency supplies), (e) the average amount of water used daily, (f) the lowest 30-day mean discharge of streams used for public supply during recent years, (g) the treatment of water, (h) the rated capacity of each water-treatment plant, and (i) the storage capacity for raw and finished water. For 58 of the cities, the sources of water, the location of water-treatment plants, and the areas served by the city system are shown on maps. Chemical, spectrographic, and radiochemical analyses of treated water and chemical and spectrographic analyses for many of the raw-water supplies are presented in tabular form.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1973

Chemical interactions of aluminum with aqueous silica at 25 degrees Celsius

Solutions containing from 10 -5 to 10 -2 moles per liter of aluminum and dissolved silica in various ratios were aged at pH levels between 4 and 10 at 25?C. A colloidal amorphous product having the composition of halloysite was produced in most solutions. It had a consistent and reversible equilibrium solubility equivalent to a standard free energy of formation of -8974 ? 1.0 kcal per mole for the formula A12Si2O5(OH)4. Some aging times were longer than 4 years, but most solutions gave consistent solubilities after only a few months of aging. Where silica concentrations were below about 10 -4 molar, microcrystalline gibbsite was formed below pH 6.0 and crystalline bayerite above pH 7.0, but only after much longer aging than was required for crystallization in silica-free solutions. Electron micrographs and diffraction patterns of the synthesized material indicate some crystallinity in the aluminosilicate, but no X-ray diffraction patterns could be obtained even in the material aged 4 years. Solubility relationships for solutions containing fluoride as well as silica and aluminum are explainable by using cryolite stabilities determined in previous work. Aluminum contents of 51 samples of water analyzed for other purposes are in reasonable agreement with the assumption of equilibrium with amorphous clay mineral species similar to the material synthesized in this work. Solubility calculations are summarized graphically for solutions of ionic strength of 0.01 and 0.10.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1968

Chemical quality of surface waters in Devils Lake basin North Dakota, 1952-60

Above-normal precipitation in 1954, 1956, and 1957 caused the water surface of Devils Lake to rise to an altitude of 1,419.3 feet, its highest in 40 years. Nearly all the water entering the lake flowed through Big Coulee, and about three-fourths of that inflow was at rates greater than 100 cubic feet per second. At these rates, the inflow contained less than 600 ppm (parts per million) dissolved solids and was of the calcium bicarbonate type. Because the inflow was more dilute than the lake water, the dissolved solids in the lake decreased from 8,680 ppm in 1952 to about 6,000 ppm in 1956 and 1957. Subsequently, however, they increased to slightly more than 8,000 ppm and averaged 6,800 ppm for the 1954-60 period. Sodium and sulfate were the principal dissolved constituents in the lake water. Although the concentration of dissolved solids varied significantly from time to time, the relative proportions of the chief constituents remained nearly the same. Water flowed from Devils Lake to Mission Bay in 1956,1957, and 1958, and some flowed from Mission Bay into East Bay. However, no water moved between East Devils Lake, western Stump Lake, and eastern Stump Lake during 1952-60; these lakes received only local runoff, and the variations in their water volume caused only minor variations in dissolved solids. For the periods sampled, concentrations averaged 60,700 ppm for East Devils Lake, 23,100 ppm for western Stump Lake, and 127,000 ppm for eastern Stump Lake. Sodium and sulfate were the chief dissolved constituents in all the lakes of the Devils Lake chain. Water in eastern Stump Lake was saturated with sodium sulfate and precipitated large quantities of granular, hydrated sodium sulfate crystals on the lakebed and shore in fall and winter. A discontinuous layer of consolidated sodium sulfate crystals formed a significant part of the bed throughout the year. Measured concentrations! of zinc, iron, manganese, fluoride, arsenic, boron, copper, and lead were not high enough to harm fish. Data on alpha and beta particle activities in Devils Lake were insufficient to determine if present activities are less than, equal to, or more than activities before nuclear tests began. Miscellaneous surface waters not in the Devils Lake chain contained dissolved solids that ranged from 239 to 61,200 ppm. The lakes that spill infrequently and have little or no ground-water inflow and outflow generally contain high concentrations of dissolved solids. Salt balance computations for Devils Lake for 1952-60 indicate that a net of as much as 89,000 tons of salts was removed from the bed by the water in some years and as much as 35,000 tons was added to the bed in other years. For the 9-year period, the tons removed exceeded the tons added; the net removed averaged 2.7 tons per acre per year. Pickup of these salts from the bed increased the dissolved solids in the lake water an average of 193 ppni per year. Between 1952 and 1960, 201,000 tons of salt was added to the bed of East Devils Lake, 15,100 tons to the bed of western Stump Lake, and 421,000 tons to the bed of eastern Stump Lake. Laboratory examination of shore and bed material indicated that the shore contained less weight of salt per unit weight of dry, inorganic material than the bed. Calcium and bicarbonate were the chief constituents dissolved from bed material of Devils Lake, whereas sodium and sulfate were the chief constituents dissolved from bed material of East Bay, East Devils Lake, and eastern and western Stump Lakes. Generally, calcium and bicarbonate were the chief constitutents dissolved from shore material of all these lakes. Evidence indicates that not more than 20 percent of the salt that "disappeared" from the water of Devils Lake west of State Route 20 as the lake altitudes decreased years ago will redissolve if the lake altitude is restored.

North Dakota↗
USGS1982

Methods for collection and analysis of geopressured geothermal and oil field waters

Present methods are described for the collection, preservation, and chemical analysis of waters produced from geopressured geothermal and petroleum wells. Detailed procedures for collection include precautions and equipment necessary to ensure that the sample is representative of the water produced. Procedures for sample preservation include filtration, acidification, dilution for silica, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) extraction of aluminum, addition of potassium permanganate to preserve mercury, and precipitation of carbonate species as strontium carbonate for stable carbon isotopes and total dissolved carbonate analysis. Characteristics determined at the well site are sulfide, pH, ammonia, and conductivity. Laboratory procedures are given for the analysis of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, iron, manganese, zinc, lead, aluminum, .and mercury by atomic absorption and flame emission spectroscopy. Chloride is determined by silver nitrate titration and fluoride by ion-specific electrode. Bromide and iodide concentrations are determined by the hypochlorite oxidation method. Sulfate is analyzed by titration using barium chloride with thorin indicator after pretreatment with alumina. Boron and silica are determined colorimetrically by the carmine and molybdate-blue methods, respectively. Aliphatic acid anions (C2 through C5) are determined by gas chromatography after separation and concentration in a chloroform-butanol mixture.

Water Supply Paper↗
USGS1987

Quality of ground water in Idaho

The major aquifers in Idaho are categorized under two rock types, sedimentary and volcanic, and are grouped into six hydrologic basins. Areas with adequate, minimally adequate, or deficient data available for groundwater-quality evaluations are described. Wide variations in chemical concentrations in the water occur within individual aquifers, as well as among the aquifers. The existing data base is not sufficient to describe fully the ground-water quality throughout the State; however, it does indicate that the water is generally suitable for most uses. In some aquifers, concentrations of fluoride, cadmium, and iron in the water exceed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's drinking-water standards. Dissolved solids, chloride, and sulfate may cause problems in some local areas. Water-quality data are sparse in many areas, and only general statements can be made regarding the areal distribution of chemical constituents. Few data are available to describe temporal variations of water quality in the aquifers. Primary concerns related to special problem areas in Idaho include (1) protection of water quality in the Rathdrum Prairie aquifer, (2) potential degradation of water quality in the Boise-Nampa area, (3) effects of widespread use of drain wells overlying the eastern Snake River Plain basalt aquifer, and (4) disposal of low-level radioactive wastes at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory. Shortcomings in the ground-water-quality data base are categorized as (1) multiaquifer sample inadequacy, (2) constituent coverage limitations, (3) baseline-data deficiencies, and (4) data-base nonuniformity.

Water Supply Paper↗