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USGS1950

A contribution to the etiology of ulcer disease of trout

During the fall of 1947 and the late summer of 1948, outbreaks of ulcer disease occurred among brook trout fingerlings at the Leetown station and other hatcheries. From the ulcers, blood, and kidneys of the diseased trout were isolated bacteria which could be successfully cultivated only on media to which blood or fish‐tissue extract had been added. Some characteristics of these bacteria are described. In a series of inoculation experiments, brook, brown, and rainbow trout were infected with pure cultures of the isolated bacteria. When the trout used for these tests were free from a latent infection of B. salmonicida, ulcer disease could be reproduced and the bacteria reisolated in pure culture from the inoculated fish. On the basis of the information on hand, it is believed that the isolated bacteria belong to the genus Hemophilus.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS2003

Physiological responses of juvenile rainbow trout to fasting and swimming activity: Effects on body composition and condition indices

The physiological traits that allow fish to survive periods of limited food resources are poorly understood. We assessed changes in proximate body composition, relative organ mass, blood metabolites, and relative weight (Wr) of sedentary and actively swimming (15 cm/s) juvenile rainbow trout (154-182 mm total length) over 147 d of fasting. Fasting caused measurable responses that were augmented when fish were swimming. Lipids and plasma triacylglycerides declined over time. Proteins were catabolized simultaneously with lipid reserves, but ammonia concentrations in plasma did not increase. The liver somatic index (LSI) did not change substantially over 105 d, suggesting that gluconeogenesis maintained blood glucose concentrations and hepatic glycogen reserves for a substantial period of fasting. The gut somatic index (GSI) and Wr declined linearly during fasting, but the LSI did not decline until after 105 d of fasting. Consequently, the use of different body condition indices could lead to different conclusions about the condition of juvenile rainbow trout. Swimming activity caused fish to have lower lipid and protein reserves than those of sedentary fish. No mortalities were observed among sedentary fish, but mortalities occurred among actively swimming fish after 97 d of fasting when 3.2% or less lipid remained in their bodies. Body condition indices did not account for differences in proximate body composition between sedentary and actively swimming fish and were relatively poor predictors of lipid content and risk of mortality. The probability of mortality was most accurately predicted by percent lipid content. Therefore, we suggest that fisheries scientists consider using percent lipid content when evaluating the physiological status and risk of mortality due to starvation among juvenile rainbow trout.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS1990

Ultrastructure of the spleen and head kidney of striped bass

The spleen and head kidney of striped bass Morone saxatilis were examined by electron microscopy, including examination of ultrastructural localization of peroxidase. The spleen is composed of a loosely organized reticulum that supports the red and white pulp. The principal hematopoietic and mature blood cells observed were erythrocytes, erythroblasts, lymphocytes, macrophages, thrombocytes, and aggregates of pigmented macrophages. In addition, limited numbers of neutrophils, neutrophilic myelocytes (immature neutrophils), plasma cells, eosinophils and monocytes were identified. Reticular cells and fibers appeared to provide a structural framework for both cells and blood sinuses in the spleen. Like the spleen, the head kidney contained erythrocytes, macrophages, monocytes, lymphocytes, and other less frequently observed cell types. A distinct difference in the cytologic composition of the two organs, however, was in the greater number of neutrophilic myelocytes found in the head kidney, where these cells were often arranged in groups. Positive peroxidase reactions were observed for neutrophils, neutrophilic myelocytes, macrophage phagolysosomes, and pigmented macrophages in both the spleen and head kidney.

Journal of Aquatic Animal Health↗

USGS2008

Physiological response of some economically important freshwater salmonids to catch-and-release fishing

Catch-and-release fishing regulations are widely used by fishery resource managers to maintain both the quantity and quality of sport fish populations. We evaluated blood chemistry disturbances in wild brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, brown trout Salmo trutta, cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarkii, and Arctic grayling Thymallus arcticus that had been hooked and played for 1-5 min in waters of the intermountain western United States. A hatchery stock of brown trout was included for comparison. To assess time needed for recovery, additional test groups were played for 5 min and then released into net-pens, where they were held for up to 72 h. The osmoregulatory and metabolic disturbances associated with catch-and-release fishing under the conditions we tested were minimal and judged to be well within normal physiological tolerance limits. In fish that were held for recovery, the blood chemistry alterations that did occur appeared to be related to stress from confinement in the net-pens. Our results confirm the results of previous studies, showing that prerelease air exposure and handling cause more physiological stress than does either hooking per se or playing time. Fishery managers must be aware of the differences in the perceptions, attitudes, and values of different societal groups, some of which feel that catch-and-release fishing should be banned because it is cruel to the animals. On the basis of brain anatomy, it seems highly unlikely that fish experience pain in the same manner as humans experience it, because fish lack a neocortex, the brain structure that enables the sensation of pain in higher vertebrates. However, independent of the neurobiological argument, our results indicate that under conditions similar to those tested, fish subjected to catch and release are neither suffering nor particularly stressed. Improved education programs about the relatively benign physiological effects of catch-and-release fishing as a fishery management practice would be beneficial to anglers and the nonfishing public alike.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗

USGS2011

Bypass system modification at Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River improved the survival of juvenile salmon

From 1987 to 1992, we evaluated a fish bypass system at Bonneville Dam Powerhouse 2 on the Columbia River. The survival of subyearling Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha released into the system ranged from 0.774 to 0.911 and was significantly lower than the survival of test fish released into turbines and the area immediately below the powerhouse where bypass system flow reentered the river. Yearling and subyearling Chinook salmon and yearling coho salmon O. kisutch released into the bypass system were injured or descaled. Also, levels of blood plasma cortisol and lactate were significantly higher in yearling and subyearling Chinook salmon that passed through the bypass system than in fish released directly into a net located over the bypass exit. This original system was then extensively modified using updated design criteria, and the site where juvenile fish reentered the river was relocated 2.8 km further downstream to reduce predation on bypassed fish by northern pikeminnow Ptychocheilus oregonensis. Based on studies conducted from 1999 to 2001, the new bypass system resulted in high fish survival, virtually no injuries to fish, fish passage times that were generally similar to water travel times, and mild stress responses from which fish recovered quickly. The mean estimated survival of subyearling Chinook salmon passing through the new bypass system was 0.946 in 2001, which was an usually low-flow year. Survival, physical condition, passage timing, and blood physiological indicators of stress were all useful metrics for assessing the performance of both bypass systems and are discussed. The engineering and hydraulic criteria used to design the new bypass system that resulted in improved fish passage conditions are described.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society↗

USGS2006

Comparison of methods used to diagnose generalized inflammatory disease in manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris)

Manatees ( Trichechus manatus latirostris ) are afflicted with inflammatory and infectious disease secondary to human interaction, such as boat strike and entanglement, as well as “cold stress syndrome” and pneumonia. White-blood-cell count and fever, primary indicators of systemic inflammation in most species, are insensitive in diagnosing inflammatory disease in manatees. Acute phase-response proteins, such as haptoglobin and serum amyloid A, have proven to be sensitive measures of inflammation/infection in domestic large animal species. This study assessed diagnosis of generalized inflammatory disease by different methods including total white-blood-cell count, albumin: globulin ratio, gel electrophoresis analysis, C-reactive protein, alpha 1 acid glycoprotein, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, and serum amyloid A. Samples were collected from 71 apparently healthy and 27 diseased animals during diagnostic medical examination. Serum amyloid A, measured by ELISA, followed by albumin:globulin ratio, measured by plasma gel electrophoresis, were most sensitive in diagnosing inflammatory disease, with diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of approximately 90%. The reference interval for serum amyloid A is <10–50 μg/ml with an equivocal interval of 51–70 μg/ml. The reference interval for albumin:globulin ratio by plasma gel electrophoresis is 0.7–1.1. Albumin: globulin ratio, calculated using biochemical techniques, was not accurate due to overestimation of albumin by bromcresol green dye-binding methodology. Albumin:globulin ratio, measured by serum gel electrophoresis, has a low sensitivity of 15% due to the lack of fibrinogen in the sample. Haptoglobin, measured by hemoglobin titration, had a reference interval of 0.4–2.4 mg/ml, a diagnostic sensitivity of 60%, and a diagnostic specificity of 93%. The haptoglobin assay is significantly affected by hemolysis. Fibrinogen, measured by heat precipitation, has a reference interval of 100–400 mg/dl, a diagnostic sensitivity of 40%, and a diagnostic specificity of 95%.

Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine↗

USGS2002

PCR diagnostics underestimate the prevalence of avian malaria ( Plasmodium relictum ) in experimentally-infected passerines

Several polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods have recently been developed for diagnosing malarial infections in both birds and reptiles, but a critical evaluation of their sensitivity in experimentally-infected hosts has not been done. This study compares the sensitivity of several PCR-based methods for diagnosing avian malaria ( Plasmodium relictum ) in captive Hawaiian honeycreepers using microscopy and a recently developed immunoblotting technique. Sequential blood samples were collected over periods of up to 4.4 yr after experimental infection and rechallenge to determine both the duration and detectability of chronic infections. Two new nested PCR approaches for detecting circulating parasites based on P. relictum 18S rRNA genes and the thrombospondin-related anonymous protein (TRAP) gene are described. The blood smear and the PCR tests were less sensitive than serological methods for detecting chronic malarial infections. Individually, none of the diagnostic methods was 100% accurate in detecting subpatent infections, although serological methods were significantly more sensitive (97%) than either nested PCR (61–84%) or microscopy (27%). Circulating parasites in chronically infected birds either disappear completely from circulation or to drop to intensities below detectability by nested PCR. Thus, the use of PCR as a sole means of detection of circulating parasites may significantly underestimate true prevalence.

Journal of Parasitology↗

USGS2022

Detection of Splendidofilaria sp. (Onchocercidae:Splendidofilariinae) Microfilaria within Alaskan ground-dwelling birds in the grouse subfamily tetraoninae using taqman probe-based real-time PCR

Grouse and ptarmigan (Galliformes) harbor fairly diverse helminth faunas that can impact the host's health, including filarial nematodes in the genus Splendidofilaria . As host and parasite distributions are predicted to shift in response to recent climate change, novel parasites may be introduced into a region and impose additional stressors on bird populations. Limited information is available on the prevalence of filariasis in Alaska galliforms. To date, no molecular surveys have been completed. Past studies relied on examining blood smears or total body necropsies, which are time-consuming and may not detect filarial parasites with low prevalence in hosts. Therefore, we developed a TaqMan probe-based real-time PCR assay targeting the cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene ( COI ) of Splendidofilaria to decrease processing times and increase sensitivity as well as provide baseline data on the diversity of filariid infections in galliform species in Alaska. We screened a combined total of 708 galliform samples (678 unique individual birds) from different tissues (blood, muscle, and lung) for the presence of filarial DNA across the state of Alaska. Real-time PCR screening revealed an overall prevalence of filarial infection of 9.5% across species: Bonasa umbellus (0%, n = 23), Dendragapus fuliginosus (0%, n = 8), Falcipennis canadensis (26.8%, n = 198), Lagopus lagopus (2.6%, n = 274), Lagopus leucura (0%, n = 23), Lagopus muta (3%, n = 166), and Tympanuchus phasianellus (12.5%, n = 16). We observed microfilarial infections throughout most of Alaska except in Arctic regions and the Aleutian Islands where viable vectors may not be present.

Journal of Parasitology↗

USGS2021

Effects of season, location, species, and sex on hematologic and plasma biochemical values and body mass in free-ranging Grebes (Aechmophorus species)

The effects of season, location, species, and sex on body weight and a comprehensive array of blood chemistry and hematology analytes were compared for free-ranging western ( Aechmophorus occidentalis ) and Clark's ( Aechmophorus clarkii ) grebes. Birds (n = 56) were collected from Puget Sound, WA, and Monterey Bay and San Francisco Bay, CA, from February 2007 to March 2011. The data supported generalization of observed ranges for most analytes across Aechmophoru s grebe metapopulations wintering on the Pacific coast. Notable seasonal and location effects were observed for packed cell volume (winter 6% greater than fall; winter California [CA] 5% greater than Washington [WA]), total white blood cell count (CA 3.57 × 10 3 cells/µL greater than WA), heterophils (WA 10% greater than CA), lymphocytes (winter 19% greater than fall), heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (fall 5.7 greater than winter), basophils (CA greater than WA), plasma protein (WA about 10 g/L [1.0 g/dL] greater than CA), plasma protein to fibrinogen ratio (winter about 15 greater than fall), potassium (CA 2 mmol/L greater than WA), and liver enzymes (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase: WA greater than CA). Within California, season had a greater effect on body mass than sex (mean winter weights about 200 g greater than fall), whereas within a season, males weighed only about 80 g more than females, on average. These data give biologists and veterinarians quantitative reference values to better assess health at the individual and metapopulation level.

Washington, California↗

USGS2003

Lead fishing weights and other fishing tackle in selected waterbirds

From 1995 through 1999, 2,240 individuals of 28 species of waterbirds were examined in the United States for ingested lead fishing weights. A combination of radiography and visual examination of stomachs was used to search for lead weights and blood and liver samples from live birds and carcasses, respectively, were collected for lead analysis. Ingested lead weights were found most frequently in the Common Loon ( Gavia immer ) (11 of 313 = 3.5%) and Brown Pelican ( Pelecanus occidentalis ) (10 of 365 = 2.7%), but also in one of 81 (1.2%) Double-crested Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax auritus ) and one of 11 (9.1%) Black-crowned Night Herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax ). Birds with ingested lead fishing weights (including split shot, jig heads, and egg, bell, and pyramid sinkers) were found in California, Florida, Maine, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Wisconsin. The size and mass of ingested lead weights ranged from split shot of 7 mm in the longest dimension, weighing less than 2 g, to a 22 × 39 mm pyramid sinker that weighed 78.2 g. Six ingested lead weights were more than 25.4 mm in the longest dimension. Lead concentrations in the blood and liver of birds with lead fishing weights in their stomachs ranged up to 13.9 ppm and 26.0 ppm (wet weight basis), respectively. During the study, we also noted the presence of ingested or entangled fishing tackle, with no associated lead weights, in eight species.

Waterbirds↗

USGS2015

Avian malaria in Hawaiian forest birds: Infection and population impacts across species and elevations

Wildlife diseases can present significant threats to ecological systems and biological diversity, as well as domestic animal and human health. However, determining the dynamics of wildlife diseases and understanding the impact on host populations is a significant challenge. In Hawai‘i, there is ample circumstantial evidence that introduced avian malaria ( Plasmodium relictum ) has played an important role in the decline and extinction of many native forest birds. However, few studies have attempted to estimate disease transmission and mortality, survival, and individual species impacts in this distinctive ecosystem. We combined multi-state capture-recapture (longitudinal) models with cumulative age-prevalence (cross-sectional) models to evaluate these patterns in Apapane, Hawai‘i Amakihi, and Iiwi in low-, mid-, and high-elevation forests on the island of Hawai‘i based on four longitudinal studies of 3–7 years in length. We found species-specific patterns of malaria prevalence, transmission, and mortality rates that varied among elevations, likely in response to ecological factors that drive mosquito abundance. Malaria infection was highest at low elevations, moderate at mid elevations, and limited in high-elevation forests. Infection rates were highest for Iiwi and Apapane, likely contributing to the absence of these species in low-elevation forests. Adult malaria fatality rates were highest for Iiwi, intermediate for Amakihi at mid and high elevations, and lower for Apapane; low-elevation Amakihi had the lowest malaria fatality, providing strong evidence of malaria tolerance in this low-elevation population. Our study indicates that hatch-year birds may have greater malaria infection and/or fatality rates than adults. Our study also found that mosquitoes prefer feeding on Amakihi rather than Apapane, but Apapane are likely a more important reservoir for malaria transmission to mosquitoes. Our approach, based on host abundance and infection rates, may be an effective alternative to mosquito blood meal analysis for determining vector-host contacts when mosquito densities are low and collection of blood-fed mosquitoes is impractical. Our study supports the hypothesis that avian malaria has been a primary factor influencing the elevational distribution and abundance of these three species, and likely limits other native Hawaiian species that are susceptible to malaria.

Hawai'i↗

USGS2007

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in Steller's eiders ( Polysticta stelleri ) and harlequin ducks ( Histronicus histronicus ) in the Eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska, USA

Seaducks may be affected by harmful levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at seaports near the Arctic. As an indicator of exposure to PAHs, we measured hepatic enzyme 7-ethoxyresorufin- O -deethylase activity (EROD) to determine cytochrome P4501A induction in Steller's eiders ( Polysticta stelleri ) and Harlequin ducks ( Histronicus histronicus ) from Unalaska, Popof, and Unga Islands (AK, USA) in 2002 and 2003. We measured PAHs and organic contaminants in seaduck prey samples and polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in seaduck blood plasma to determine any relationship to EROD. Using Akaike's information criterion, species and site differences best explained EROD patterns: Activity was higher in Harlequin ducks than in Steller's eiders and higher at industrial than at nonindustrial sites. Site-specific concentrations of PAHs in blue mussels ([ Mytilus trossilus ] seaduck prey; PAH concentrations higher at Dutch Harbor, Unalaska, than at other sites) also was important in defining EROD patterns. Organochlorine compounds rarely were detected in prey samples. No relationship was found between polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in avian blood and EROD, which further supported inferences derived from Akaike's information criterion. Congeners were highest in seaducks from a nonindustrial or reference site, contrary to PAH patterns. To assist in interpreting the field study, 15 captive Steller's eiders were dosed with a PAH known to induce cytochrome P4501A. Dosed, captive Steller's eiders had definitive induction, but results indicated that wild Steller's eiders were exposed to PAHs or other inducing compounds at levels greater than those used in laboratory studies. Concentrations of PAHs in blue mussels at or near Dutch Harbor (&sim;1,180–5,980 ng/g) approached those found at highly contaminated sites (&sim;4,100–7,500 ng/g).

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry↗

USGS2006

Pathogens, nutritional deficiency, and climate influences on a declining moose population

Several potential proximate causes may be implicated in a recent (post-1984) decline in moose ( Alces alces andersoni ) numbers at their southern range periphery in northwest Minnesota, USA. These causes include deleterious effects of infectious pathogens, some of which are associated with white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), negative effects of climate change, increased food competition with deer or moose, legal or illegal hunting, and increased predation by gray wolves ( Canis lupus ) and black bears ( Ursus americanus ). Long-standing factors that may have contributed to the moose decline include those typically associated with marginal habitat such as nutritional deficiencies. We examined survival and productivity among radiocollared ( n = 152) adult female and juvenile moose in northwest Minnesota during 1995–2000, and assessed cause of death and pathology through carcass necropsy of radiocollared and non-radiocollared animals. Aerial moose surveys suggested that hunting was an unlikely source of the numerical decline because the level of harvest was relatively low (i.e., approx. 15% / 2 yr) and the population usually grew in years following a hunt. The majority of moose mortalities (up to 87% of radiocollared moose [ n = 76] and up to 65% of non-radiocollared moose [ n = 84]) were proximally related to pathology associated with parasites and infectious disease. Liver fluke ( Fascioloides magna ) infections apparently constituted the greatest single source of mortality and caused significant pathology in the liver, thoracic and peritoneal cavities, pericardial sac, and lungs. Mortality due to meningeal worm ( Parelaphostrongylus tenuis ) was less prevalent and was manifested through characteristic neurological disease. Several mortalities apparently were associated with unidentified infectious disease, probably acting in close association with malnutrition. Bone-marrow fat was lower for moose dying of natural causes than those dying of anthropogenic factors or accidents, implying that acute malnutrition contributed to moose mortality. Blood profiles from live-captured animals indicated that those dying in the subsequent 18 months were chronically malnourished. Relative to other populations, average annual survival rates for adult females (0.79 [0.74–0.84; 95% CI]) and yearlings (0.64 [0.48–0.86]) were low, whereas those for calves (0.66 [0.53–081]) were high. Pregnancy (48%) and twinning (19%) rates were among the lowest reported for moose, with reproductive senescence among females being apparent as early as 8 years. Pregnancy status was related to indices of acute (i.e., bone-marrow fat) and chronic (i.e., blood condition indices) malnutrition. Opportunistic carcass recovery indicated that there likely were few prime-aged males (>5 yr old) in the population. Analysis of protein content in moose browse and fecal samples indicated that food quality was probably adequate to support moose over winter, but the higher fecal protein among animals that died in the subsequent 18 months could be indicative of protein catabolism associated with malnutrition. Trace element analysis from moose livers revealed apparent deficiencies in copper and selenium, but there was limited evidence of direct association between trace element concentrations and moose disease, pathology, or mortality. Time-series analysis of regional moose counts (1961–2000) indicated that annual population growth rate was related negatively to mean summer temperature, with winter and summer temperatures increasing by an average of 6.8 and 2.1 C, respectively, during the 40-year period. This change may have increased moose thermoregulatory costs and disrupted their energy balance, and thereby reduced their fitness. Time-series analysis failed to show a relationship between annual population growth rate and moose or deer abundance, indicating that food limitation via resource competition was unlikely. Population viability analyses, using count data (1961–2000) and demographic data collected during this study, suggested that the northwest Minnesota moose population likely would not persist over the next 50 years. More broadly, we conclude that the southern distribution of moose may become restricted in areas where climate and habitat conditions are marginal, especially where deer are abundant and act as reservoir hosts for parasites.

Minnesota↗

USGS1998

Leucocytozoon simondi in Emperor Geese from the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in Alaska

We surveyed Emperor Geese ( Chen canagica ) in western Alaska for avian hematozoa. Blood smears were collected from 134 adults and goslings in late July 1996, on their breeding grounds on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. One of 134 (0.7%) Emperor Geese harbored Leucocytozoon simondi , representing a new host record for this parasite. No other hematozoa were detected. This is one of few reports of avian blood parasites from the arctic tundra.

Alaska↗

USGS1997

Hematological and plasma biochemical reference ranges of Alaskan seabirds: Their ecological significance and clinical importance

Blood was analyzed from 151 pelagic marine birds to establish reference ranges for hematological and plasma biochemical parameters from healthy, wild populations of Pacific seabirds. Of the 13 species examined, 9 were from the Family Alcidae (N = 122 individuals) and the remainder (N = 29) from the Families Phalacrocoracidae, Laridae, and Procellariidae. Three of 8 hematological parameters (total white blood cell count, lymphocyte count and eosinophil count) differed significantly among species, as did 9 of 13 plasma biochemical parameters (alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, creatine kinase, cholesterol, glucose, lactate dehydrogenase, total bilirubin, total protein and field total protein). There were no differences among species for packed cell volume, buffy coat, cell counts of heterophils, monocytes and basophils, or for concentrations of alanine aminotransferase, triglycerides, uric acid and calcium. Plasma calcium concentration, triglyceride levels and field total protein varied significantly between sexes, with females having higher mean concentrations of all 3 parameters. However, no significant relationships between measures of breeding condition (brood patch size, subcutaneous and mesenteric fat deposits, or ovarian follicle size and ovary weight) and calcium or alkaline phosphatase concentrations in female birds could be identified. Alanine aminotransferase and uric acid were the only analytes which did not differ significantly between species or sexes.

Colonial Waterbirds↗

USGS1966

Subinoculation as a technique in the diagnosis of avian plasmodium

In two successive years, 1964 and 1965, blood subinoculated from wild Canada geese, negative for Plasmodium by examination of peripheral blood smears, into 5-day-old domestic geese produced 60 % infection in the recipients. Prepatent and patent periods, as well as intensity of parasitemia showed much variation. Intramuscular inoculation produced the same prevalence as the intravenous route, but longer prepatent periods and less intensity of parasitemia.

Avian Diseases↗

USGS1981

Naturally occurring and experimentally induced castor bean (Ricinus communis) poisoning in ducks

Castor bean ( Ricinus communis ) poisoning accounted for the death of several thousand ducks in the Texas panhandle in the fall and winter months of 1969-1971. Signs of intoxication resembled those of botulism, except for mucoid, blood-tinged excreta. The most common lesions were severe fatty change in the liver, widely distributed internal petechial hemorrhages or ecchymoses, and catarrhal enteritis. Nearly intact castor beans were found in the stomach of one duck during field necropsy. Fragments of seed coat resembling castor bean were found in the stomachs of 10 of 14 ducks examined in the laboratory. Clinical signs and postmortem lesions observed in wild ducks were induced experimentally in mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ) by force-feeding intact castor beans. Toxicity titrations were erratic, but the LD50 appeared to be between three and four seeds. The mouse toxicity test, used to detect Clostridium botulinum toxin in the blood serum of intoxicated ducks, was negative in every case. Hemagglutination and precipitin tests generally failed to detect castor bean in extracts of excreta or intestinal contents of experimentally intoxicated ducks.

Texas↗

USGS1978

Metabolic indicators of habitat differences in four Minnesota deer populations

Blood samples were collected from 40 white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) from 4 winter yards in northeastern Minnesota from 17 March 1974 through 23 April 1975. The results of 26 blood assays were examined for the effects of age, sex, capture date, capture method, disease and location. Age-related effects were found for serum chloride, calcium, gamma globulin, creatine phosphokinase (CPK), lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), and alkaline phosphatase. The only sex difference was lower CPK in males. Date of collection effects were found for erythrocyte count, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), serum glucose, and nonesterified fatty acids (NEF A). Capture method affected serum glucose, acid base balance, and serum enzymes. Effects related primarily to capture location or habitat differences were found for erythrocyte count, MCV, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), serum urea, cholesterol, LDH, thyroxine, and NEF A. Animals whose assays indicated the poorest nutritional status inhabited wintering areas with the oldest vegetation. Habitat differences can be detected by measuring the physiological status of the local animal populations.

Minnesota↗