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At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources
USGS2016

Municipal solid waste landfills harbor distinct microbiomes

Landfills are the final repository for most of the discarded material from human society and its “built environments.” Microorganisms subsequently degrade this discarded material in the landfill, releasing gases (largely CH 4 and CO 2 ) and a complex mixture of soluble chemical compounds in leachate. Characterization of “landfill microbiomes” and their comparison across several landfills should allow the identification of environmental or operational properties that influence the composition of these microbiomes and potentially their biodegradation capabilities. To this end, the composition of landfill microbiomes was characterized as part of an ongoing USGS national survey studying the chemical composition of leachates from 19 non-hazardous landfills across 16 states in the continental U.S. The landfills varied in parameters such as size, waste composition, management strategy, geography, and climate zone. The diversity and composition of bacterial and archaeal populations in leachate samples were characterized by 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, and compared against a variety of physical and chemical parameters in an attempt to identify their impact on selection. Members of the Epsilonproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Clostridia, and candidate division OP3 were the most abundant. The distribution of the observed phylogenetic diversity could best be explained by a combination of variables and was correlated most strongly with the concentrations of chloride and barium, rate of evapotranspiration, age of waste, and the number of detected household chemicals. This study illustrates how leachate microbiomes are distinct from those of other natural or built environments, and sheds light on the major selective forces responsible for this microbial diversity.

Frontiers in Microbiology↗
USGS2021

Solutions in microbiome engineering: Prioritizing barriers to organism establishment

Microbiome engineering is increasingly being employed as a solution to challenges in health, agriculture, and climate. Often manipulation involves inoculation of new microbes designed to improve function into a preexisting microbial community. Despite, increased efforts in microbiome engineering inoculants frequently fail to establish and/or confer long-lasting modifications on ecosystem function. We posit that one underlying cause of these shortfalls is the failure to consider barriers to organism establishment. This is a key challenge and focus of macroecology research, specifically invasion biology and restoration ecology. We adopt a framework from invasion biology that summarizes establishment barriers in three categories: (1) propagule pressure, (2) environmental filtering, and (3) biotic interactions factors. We suggest that biotic interactions is the most neglected factor in microbiome engineering research, and we recommend a number of actions to accelerate engineering solutions.

The ISME Journal: Multidisciplinary Journal of Mic↗
USGS2025

Investigating the influence of Diadematidae scuticociliatosis on host microbiome composition

Mass mortality of Diadematidae urchins, caused by the Diadema antillarum scuticociliatosis Philaster clade (DScPc) , affected the Caribbean in spring 2022 and subsequently spread to the eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, and western Indian Ocean. A key question around Diadematidae scuticociliatosis (DSc), the disease caused by the scuticociliate, is whether the urchin microbiome varies between scuticociliatosis-affected and grossly normal urchins. Tissue samples from both grossly normal and abnormal Diadema antillarum were collected in the field during the initial assessment of the DSc causative agent and from an experimental challenge of DScPc culture on aquacultured D. antillarum . Specimens were analyzed using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Additional abnormal urchin samples were collected from the most recent outbreak site in the western Indian Ocean (Réunion Island). At reference (i.e., unaffected by DSc) sites, Kistimonas spp. , Propionigenium spp., and Endozoicomonas spp. were highly represented in amplicon libraries. DSc-affected urchin amplicon libraries had lower taxonomic richness and a greater representation of taxa related to Fangia hongkongensis and Psychrobium spp. Amplicon libraries of urchins experimentally challenged with the DSc pathogen had some shifts in microbial composition, but F. hongkongensis was not a part of the core bacteria in DSc-challenged specimens. DSc-affected Echinothrix diadema from Réunion Island showed a similar high representation of F. hongkongensis as that seen on Caribbean D. antillarum . Our results suggest that DSc alters Diadematidae microbiomes and that F. hongkongensis may be a candidate bacterial biomarker for DSc in environmental samples. The mechanism driving microbiome variation in host–pathogen interactions remains to be explored.

mSystems↗
USGS2017

Characterization of the juvenile green turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) microbiome throughout an ontogenetic shift from pelagic to neritic habitats

The gut microbiome of herbivorous animals consists of organisms that efficiently digest the structural carbohydrates of ingested plant material. Green turtles ( Chelonia mydas ) provide an interesting model of change in these microbial communities because they undergo a pronounced shift from a surface-pelagic distribution and omnivorous diet to a neritic distribution and herbivorous diet. As an alternative to direct sampling of the gut, we investigated the cloacal microbiomes of juvenile green turtles before and after recruitment to neritic waters to observe any changes in their microbial community structure. Cloacal swabs were taken from individual turtles for analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences using Illumina sequencing. One fecal sample was also obtained, allowing for a preliminary comparison with the bacterial community of the cloaca. We found significant variation in the juvenile green turtle bacterial communities between pelagic and neritic habitats, suggesting that environmental and dietary factors support different bacterial communities in green turtles from these habitats. This is the first study to characterize the cloacal microbiome of green turtles in the context of their ontogenetic shifts, which could provide valuable insight into the origins of their gut bacteria and how the microbial community supports their shift to herbivory.

Gulf of Mexico↗
USGS2021

Comparison of preservation and extraction methods on five taxonomically disparate coral microbiomes

All animals are host to a multitude of microorganisms that are essential to the animal’s health. Host-associated microbes have been shown to defend against potential pathogens, provide essential nutrients, interact with the host’s immune system, and even regulate mood. However, it can be difficult to preserve and obtain nucleic acids from some host-associated microbiomes, making studying their microbial communities challenging. Corals are an example of this, in part due to their potentially remote, underwater locations, their thick surface mucopolysaccharide layer, and various inherent molecular inhibitors. This study examined three different preservatives (RNAlater, DNA/RNA Shield, and liquid nitrogen) and two extraction methods (the Qiagen PowerBiofilm kit and the Promega Maxwell RBC kit with modifications) to determine if there was an optimum combination for examining the coral microbiome. These methods were employed across taxonomically diverse coral species, including deep-sea/shallow, stony/soft, and zooxanthellate/azooxanthellate: Lophelia pertusa , Paragorgia johnsoni , Montastraea cavernosa , Porites astreoides , and Stephanocoenia intersepta . Although significant differences were found between preservative types and extraction methods, these differences were subtle, and varied in nature from coral species to coral species. Significant differences between coral species were far more profound than those detected between preservative or extraction method. We suggest that the preservative types presented here and extraction methods using a bead-beating step provide enough consistency to compare coral microbiomes across various studies, as long as subtle differences in microbial communities are attributed to dissimilar methodologies. Additionally, the inclusion of internal controls such as a mock community and extraction blanks can help provide context regarding data quality, improving downstream analyses.

Frontiers in Marine Science↗
USGS2023

Using the gut microbiome to assess stocking efforts of the endangered Pallid Sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus albus

The endangered Pallid Sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus albus , has been actively managed to prevent population declines, including stocking of hatchery-raised fish. The gut microbiome plays an innate role in an organism’s absorption of nutrients by increasing nutrient availability and can provide new insights for Pallid Sturgeon management. In this study, the Pallid Sturgeon’s microbiome is dominated by the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Fusobacteria. It was also determined that the gut bacterial diversity in hatchery-raised Pallid Sturgeon was not significantly different from wild Pallid Sturgeon, supporting that hatchery-raised Pallid Sturgeon are transitioning effectively to wild diets. There is also a high degree of intraspecific variation in the bacterial and eukaryotic sequences amongst individual Pallid Sturgeon microbiomes, suggesting the Pallid Sturgeon may be omnivorous. This study demonstrated that genetic markers may be used to effectively describe the dietary requirements for wild Pallid Sturgeon and provides the first genetic evidence that Pallid Sturgeons are effectively transitioning from hatchery-raised environments to the wild.

Missouri↗
USGS2019

Microbiomes of stony and soft deep-sea corals share rare core bacteria

Background: Numerous studies have shown that bacteria form stable associations with host corals and have focused on identifying conserved “core microbiomes” of bacterial associates inferred to be serving key roles in the coral holobiont. Because studies tend to focus on only stony corals (order Scleractinia ) or soft corals (order Alcyonacea ), it is currently unknown if there are conserved bacteria that are shared by both. A meta-analysis was done of 16S rRNA amplicon data from multiple studies generated via identical methodology to allow direct comparisons of bacterial associates across seven deep-sea corals, including both stony and soft species: Anthothela grandiflora, Anthothela sp., Lateothela grandiflora, Lophelia pertusa, Paramuricea placomus, Primnoa pacifica, and Primnoa resedaeformis . Results: Twenty-three operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were consistently present in greater than 50% of the coral samples. Seven amplicon sequence variants (ASVs), five of which corresponded to a conserved OTU, were consistently present in greater than 30% of the coral samples including five or greater coral species. A majority of the conserved sequences had close matches with previously identified coral-associated bacteria. While known to dominate tropical and temperate coral microbiomes, Endozoicomonas were extremely rare or absent from these deep-sea corals. An Endozoicomonas OTU associated with Lo. pertusa in this study was most similar to those from shallow-water stony corals, while an OTU associated with Anthothela spp. was most similar to those from shallow-water gorgonians. Conclusions: Bacterial sequences have been identified that are conserved at the level of class Anthozoa (i.e., found in both stony and soft corals, shallow and deep). These bacterial associates are therefore hypothesized to play important symbiotic roles and are highlighted for targeted future study. These conserved bacterial associates include taxa with the potential for nitrogen and sulfur cycling, detoxification, and hydrocarbon degradation. There is also some overlap with kit contaminants that need to be resolved. Rarely detected Endozoicomonas sequences are partitioned by whether the host is a stony coral or a soft coral, and the finer clustering pattern reflects the hosts’ phylogeny.

Microbiome↗
USGS2024

Effect of florfenicol administered through feed on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) gut and its microbiome

Although concerns about the impacts of antibiotics in aquatic organisms are reported worldwide, the potential adverse effects on fish gut microbial communities and fish health are still not well known. In this study, we investigated the effects of florfenicol (FFC) on the gut microbiome and gastrointestinal (GIT) gene expression in juvenile Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ). Three doses of FFC were used to coat experimental feed at 10, 20 and 30 mg/kg/ fish body weight (bw). The feed was administered for 18 days, followed by a 10-day recovery period. The metatranscriptome analysis revealed that 10 and 30 mg/kg bw of FFC led to the downregulation of genes involved in the transcription of NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase chain-1, suggesting that the antibiotic targets bacterial respiratory metabolism. The 30 mg/kg bw FFC treatment upregulated genes that encode glycolytic enzymes, such as phosphoglycerate kinase, indicating a disruption of energy metabolism in the microbiome. Analysis of the fish host transcriptome showed that the FFC treatment affected cellular processes in the GIT system of fish, including pathways related to apoptosis and DNA metabolism. The 30 mg/kg bw FFC treatment specifically activated pathways related to cellular regulation, including LXR/RXR activation, FXR/RXR activation, and protein ubiquitination. At the end of the recovery phase, the 30 mg/kg bw FFC treated group altered pathways related to EIF2 signaling and lysine degradation.

Aquaculture↗
USGS2022

PCB exposure is associated with reduction of endosymbionts in riparian spider microbiomes

Microbial communities, including endosymbionts, play diverse and critical roles in host biology and reproduction, but contaminant exposure may cause an imbalance in the microbiome composition with subsequent impacts on host health. Here, we examined whether there was a significant alteration of the microbiome community within two taxa of riparian spiders (Tetragnathidae and Araneidae) from a site with historical polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contamination in southern Ontario, Canada. Riparian spiders specialize in the predation of adult aquatic insects and, as such, their contaminant levels closely track those of nearby aquatic ecosystems. DNA from whole spiders from sites with either low or high PCB contamination was extracted, and spider microbiota profiled by partial 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. The most prevalent shift in microbial communities we observed was a large reduction in endosymbionts in spiders at the high PCB site. The abundance of endosymbionts at the high PCB site was 63 % and 98 % lower for tetragnathids and araneids, respectively, than at the low PCB site. Overall, this has potential implications for spider reproductive success and food webs, as riparian spiders are critical gatekeepers of energy and material fluxes at the land-water interface.

Science of the Total Environment↗
USGS2023

Heterotrophy, microbiome, and location effects on restoration efficacy of the threatened coral Acropora palmata

The iconic and threatened Caribbean coral, Acropora palmata , is an essential reef-ecosystem engineer. Understanding the processes underpinning this coral’s survival and growth is essential to restoring this foundational species. Here, we compared replicate A. palmata colonies transplanted along 350 km of Florida’s offshore coral reef to determine holobiont and/or environmental variables that predict transplant success. We found a west-to-east gradient in coral physiology coupled with site-specific coral-associated microbiomes. Interestingly, no variables were linked to coral genet. Our results suggest that the unique oceanographic conditions with periodic upwelling events in the Dry Tortugas provide corals with greater opportunity for heterotrophy that in turn enhances coral growth and survivorship, and positively influences the microbiome. Our findings indicate that restoration efforts in the Dry Tortugas, and other places exhibiting higher food availability, could be most effective for A. palmata .

Florida↗
USGS2025

A comprehensive assessment of membrane bioreactor contaminant removal efficacy through analytical chemistry, fish exposures, and microbiome characterization

Treated municipal wastewater effluent is an important pathway for Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CEC) to enter aquatic ecosystems. As the aging wastewater infrastructure in many industrialized countries requires upgrades or replacement, assessing new treatment technologies in the context of CEC effects may provide additional support for science-based resource management. Here, we used three lines of evidence, analytical chemistry, fish exposure experiments, and fish and water microbiome analysis, to assess the effectiveness of membrane bioreactor treatment (MBR) to replace traditional activated sludge treatment. To do this, we sampled a municipal wastewater treatment plant with a split wastewater stream, a portion of which was treated with an MBR and another via an oxidation ditch (OXI). The OXI and MBR treatments substantially reduced most measured CECs compared to the primary effluent (PRI). Only pesticides and some pharmaceuticals were recalcitrant to both secondary treatment methods. While ammonia toxicity of PRI prevented its inclusion in fish exposure experiments, exposure of fish with waters from the OXI or MBR treated wastewater produced only subtle biological differences with no adverse apical outcomes. These findings were consistent with low chemically derived exposure: activity ratios for OXI and MBR. Microbiome analysis of fish and wastewater highlighted the significant reduction of microbial abundance and diversity in the MBR treatment compared to all other treatments. The comparable removal efficacy of CECs in MBR makes it an attractive alternative to traditional OXI, especially when MBR may eliminate the need for tertiary treatment for wastewater disinfection.

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry↗
USGS2021

Does restoration of plant diversity trigger concomitant soil microbiome changes in dryland ecosystems?

Drylands are highly vulnerable to land degradation, and despite increasing efforts, restoration success remains low. Although often ignored in the design and deployment of management strategies, soil microbial communities might be critical for dryland restoration due to their central role in promoting soil stability, nutrient cycling and plant establishment. We collected soil samples from eight dryland restoration sites within RestoreNet, a restoration field trial network, and determined their soil microbiome using 16S rRNA (bacteria and archaea) and ITS (fungi) amplicon sequencing. Each previously degraded site was treated with monoculture (single species) and polyculture (multiple species) seedling plantings. Contrary to our initial expectations, we found that these different revegetation interventions did not trigger changes in microbial diversity, composition or relative abundance of functional groups across sites after 1 year of revegetation. Synthesis and applications . Considering the crucial role of soil micro-organisms in dryland ecosystem functions, our results suggest that site-specific targeted microbiome restoration should be considered to accelerate the establishment of desired microbial communities. Plant community-based restoration practices such as revegetation have a limited impact on soil micro-organisms in the short term.

Journal of Applied Ecology↗
USGS2025

Experimental drought suppresses amphibian pathogen yet intensifies transmission and disrupts protective skin microbiome

Shifting precipitation regimes driven by global climate change can alter vertebrate behavior and host-symbiont relationships, potentially compromising host resistance to pathogen invasion. In Brazil's Atlantic Forest, a biodiversity hotspot, prior research identified drought as a key factor disrupting the skin microbiome, contributing to a die-off of pumpkin toadlets due to the invasive waterborne fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). However, observational studies cannot disentangle the direct effect of moisture on Bd growth from increased amphibian activity during wet breeding seasons. Using field enclosures, we experimentally tested the influence of drought conditions on host microhabitat use, Bd disease dynamics, and the composition and predicted Bd-inhibitory function of cutaneous bacterial communities. Each enclosure housed ecologically realistic densities of Brachycephalus pitanga , a micro-endemic pumpkin toadlet. We simulated a short-term drought in half of the enclosures using translucent tarp coverings. To track individual toadlets, we identified their unique markings and collected skin swabs biweekly over 3 months. We then implemented molecular techniques to quantify Bd loads and characterize skin bacterial diversity and composition over time. Our findings indicate that while drought may reduce overall Bd loads on hosts, this effect is partially offset by an increase in the use of water-filled areas of the enclosures and by a disruption of the protective host skin microbiome. This study provides valuable insights into the cascading impacts of climate change on animal behavior, host-symbiont interactions, and disease dynamics.

Atlantic Forest↗
USGS2022

Microbiomes associated with avian malaria survival differ between susceptible Hawaiian honeycreepers and sympatric malaria-resistant introduced birds

Of the estimated 55 Hawaiian honeycreepers (subfamily Carduelinae) only 17 species remain, nine of which the International Union for Conservation of Nature considers endangered. Among the most pressing threats to honeycreeper survival is avian malaria, caused by the introduced blood parasite Plasmodium relictum , which is increasing in distribution in Hawaiʻi as a result of climate change. Preventing further honeycreeper decline will require innovative conservation strategies that confront malaria from multiple angles. Research on mammals has revealed strong connections between gut microbiome composition and malaria susceptibility, illuminating a potential novel approach to malaria control through the manipulation of gut microbiota. One honeycreeper species, Hawaiʻi ʻamakihi ( Chlorodrepanis virens ), persists in areas of high malaria prevalence, indicating they have acquired some level of immunity. To investigate if avian host-specific microbes may be associated with malaria survival, we characterized cloacal microbiomes and malaria infection for 174 ʻamakihi and 172 malaria-resistant warbling white-eyes ( Zosterops japonicus ) from Hawaiʻi Island using 16S rRNA gene metabarcoding and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Neither microbial alpha nor beta diversity covaried with infection, but 149 microbes showed positive associations with malaria survivors. Among these were Escherichia and Lactobacillus spp . , which appear to mitigate malaria severity in mammalian hosts, revealing promising candidates for future probiotic research for augmenting malaria immunity in sensitive endangered species.

Hawaii↗
USGS2017

Endozoicomonas dominates the gill and intestinal content microbiomes of Mytilus edulis from Barnegat Bay, New Jersey

Blue mussels, Mytilus edulis, Linnaeus 1758 from southern Barnegat Bay, New Jersey were examined to determine the make-up of the normal blue mussel microbiome. Sequencing of 16S ribosomal DNA amplicons from gill and intestinal content microbiomes using the Illumina® MiSeq platform yielded 1,276,161 paired end sequence reads from the gill libraries and 1,092,333 paired end sequence reads from the intestinal content libraries. General bioinformatic analyses were conducted with the open-source packages Qiime and Mothur. Phylotype assignments to the genus level were made using the commercial One Codex platform. This resulted in 1,697,852 gill and 988,436 intestinal content sequences being classified to genus. A majority of these (67.6% and 37.2% respectively) were assigned to a single operational taxonomic unit (Mytilus edulis Symbiont, MeS) that has homologies with other recently described Endozoicomonas pathogens and symbionts of marine invertebrates. MeS shares 98% identity with an uncultured bacterium from the gill tissue of an invasive indo-Pacific oyster and with HQE1 and HQE2 isolated from the sea squirt, Styela clava. Other than MeS, most of the detected bacterial species are known from marine sediments and seawater.

New Jersey↗
USGS2020

Microbiomes from biorepositories? 16S rRNA bacterial amplicon sequencing of archived and contemporary intestinal samples of wild mammals (Eulipotyphla: Soricidae)

Interest in gut microbial community composition has exploded recently as a result of the increasing ability to characterize these organisms and a growing understanding of their role in host fitness. New technologies, such as next generation amplicon (16S rRNA) sequencing, have enabled identification of bacterial communities from samples of diverse origin (e.g., fecal, skin, genital, environmental, etc.). Relatively little work, however, has explored the feasibility of utilizing historical samples (e.g., museum archived samples) of varying age, quality, and preservation type. Because natural history collections span multiple decades, these biorepositories have the potential to provide fundamental historical baselines to measure and better understand biodiversity on a changing planet. Utilizing even a small proportion of museum specimens could provide a means of sampling past microbial communities, allowing for direct comparison to contemporary communities and more complete understanding of dynamic shifts through time. We examined the feasibility of obtaining 16S rRNA amplicon microbiome data from whole gastrointestinal tracts (GIs) of shrews of varying age and preservation method, including 5 freshly collected shrew GIs immediately fixed in liquid nitrogen (LN2), 10 ten-year old shrew GIs frozen at −20°C (whole animal), and 10 shrews of varying ages (4 from 1968, 1 from 1980, 1 from 2001, 1 from 2004, 1 from 2007, 1 from 2011 and 2 from 2013) fixed and stored whole in 70% ethanol. Not surprisingly, results of 16S rDNA amplicon sequencing reveal significantly different bacterial communities between different preservation techniques and age of samples. Ten-year old frozen samples had bacterial communities most similar to freshly collected (LN2) samples, while the bacterial communities of both were significantly different from the 70% ethanol preserved samples of various ages. Amongst those preserved in 70% ethanol, age of samples also influenced bacterial community composition. Additionally, we compare results of OTU based and ASV based analyses. Looking ahead, field collectors and museums should develop and adopt best practices related to frozen preservation to ensure adequate material for future microbiome investigations.

Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution↗
USGS2023

Compost, plants and endophytes versus metal contamination: Choice of a restoration strategy steers the microbiome in polymetallic mine waste

Finding solutions for the remediation and restoration of abandoned mining areas is of great environmental importance as they pose a risk to ecosystem health. In this study, our aim was to determine how remediation strategies with (i) compost amendment, (ii) planting a metal-tolerant grass Bouteloua curtipendula , and (iii) its inoculation with beneficial endophytes influenced the microbiome of metal-contaminated tailings originating from the abandoned Blue Nose Mine, SE Arizona, near Patagonia (USA). We conducted an indoor microcosm experiment followed by a metataxonomic analysis of the mine tailings, compost, and root samples. Our results showed that each remediation strategy promoted a distinct pattern of microbial community structure in the mine tailings, which correlated with changes in their chemical properties. The combination of compost amendment and endophyte inoculation led to the highest prokaryotic diversity and total nitrogen and organic carbon, but also induced shifts in microbial community structure that significantly correlated with an enhanced potential for mobilization of Cu and Sb. Our findings show that soil health metrics (total nitrogen, organic carbon and pH) improved, and microbial community changed, due to organic matter input and endophyte inoculation, which enhanced metal leaching from the mine waste and potentially increased environmental risks posed by Cu and Sb. We further emphasize that because the initial choice of remediation strategy can significantly impact trace element mobility via modulation of both soil chemistry and microbial communities, site specific, bench-scale preliminary tests, as reported here, can help determine the potential risk of a chosen strategy.

Environmental Microbiome↗
USGS2021

Gut microbial ecology of the Critically Endangered Fijian crested iguana (Brachylophus vitiensis): Effects of captivity status and host reintroduction on endogenous microbiomes

Animals often exhibit distinct microbial communities when maintained in captivity as compared to when in the wild. Such differentiation may be significant in headstart and reintroduction programs where individuals spend some time in captivity before release into native habitats. Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, we (i) assessed differences in gut microbial communities between captive and wild Fijian crested iguanas ( Brachylophus vitiensis ) and (ii) resampled gut microbiota in captive iguanas released onto a native island to monitor microbiome restructuring in the wild. We used both cloacal swabs and fecal samples to further increase our understanding of gut microbial ecology in this IUCN Critically Endangered species. We found significant differentiation in gut microbial community composition and structure between captive and wild iguanas in both sampling schemes. Approximately two months postrelease, microbial communities in cloacal samples from formerly captive iguanas closely resembled wild counterparts. Interestingly, microbial communities in fecal samples from these individuals remained significantly distinct from wild conspecifics. Our results indicate that captive upbringings can lead to differences in microbial assemblages in headstart iguanas as compared to wild individuals even after host reintroduction into native conditions. This investigation highlights the necessity of continuous monitoring of reintroduced animals in the wild to ensure successful acclimatization and release.

Ecology and Evolution↗