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33 records · Page 2Linked to original sources
USGS2008

Influence of flow-through and renewal exposures on the toxicity of copper to rainbow trout

We examined changes in water chemistry and copper (Cu) toxicity in three paired renewal and flow-through acute bioassays with rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Test exposure methodology influenced both exposure water chemistry and measured Cu toxicity. Ammonia and organic carbon concentrations were higher and the fraction of dissolved Cu lower in renewal tests than in paired flow-through tests. Cu toxicity was also lower in renewal tests; 96 h dissolved Cu LC50 values were 7-60% higher than LC50s from matching flow-through tests. LC50 values in both types of tests were related to dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations in exposure tanks. Increases in organic carbon concentrations in renewal tests were associated with reduced Cu toxicity, likely as a result of the lower bioavailability of Cu-organic carbon complexes. The biotic ligand model of acute Cu toxicity tended to underpredict toxicity in the presence of DOC. Model fits between predicted and observed toxicity were improved by assuming that only 50% of the measured DOC was reactive, and that this reactive fraction was present as fulvic acid. ?? 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2009

Acute oral toxicities of wildland fire control chemicals to birds

Wildland fire control chemicals are released into the environment by aerial and ground applications to manage rangeland, grassland, and forest fires. Acute oral 24 h median lethal dosages (LD50) for three fire retardants (Fire-Trol GTS-R?, Phos-Chek D-75F?, and Fire-Trol LCG-R?) and two Class A fire suppressant foams (Silv-Ex? and Phos-Chek WD881?) were estimated for northern bobwhites, Colinus virginianus, American kestrels, Falco sparverius, and red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus. The LD50s of all chemicals for the bobwhites and red-winged blackbirds and for kestrels dosed with Phos-Chek WD881? and Silv-Ex? were above the predetermined 2000 mg chemical/kg body mass regulatory limit criteria for acute oral toxicity. The LD50s were not quantifiable for kestrels dosed with Fire-Trol GTS-R?, Phos-Chek D-75F?, and Fire-Trol LCG-R? because of the number of birds which regurgitated the dosage. These chemicals appear to be of comparatively low order of acute oral toxicity to the avian species tested.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2010

Acute toxicity of diphacinone in Northern bobwhite: Effects on survival and blood clotting

The anticoagulant rodenticide diphacinone was slightly toxic (acute oral LD 50 2014 mg/kg) to Northern bobwhite ( Colinus virginianus ) in a 14-day acute toxicity trial. Precise and sensitive assays of blood clotting (prothrombin time, Russell’s Viper venom time, and thrombin clotting time) were adapted for use in quail, and this combination of assays is recommended to measure the effects of anticoagulant rodenticides. A single oral sublethal dose of diphacinone (434 mg/kg body weight) prolonged clotting time at 48 h post-dose compared to controls. At 783 mg/kg (approximate LD 02 ), clotting time was prolonged at both 24 and 48 h post-dose. Prolongation of in vitro clotting time reflects impaired coagulation complex activity, and was detected before overt signs of toxicity were apparent at the greatest dosages (2868 and 3666 mg/kg) in the acute toxicity trial. These clotting time assays and toxicity data will assist in the development of a pharmacodynamic model to predict toxicity, and also facilitate rodenticide hazard and risk assessments in avian species.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2011

Mercury bioaccumulation and biomagnification in Ozark stream ecosystems

Crayfish ( Orconectes spp.), Asian clam ( Corbicula fluminea ), northern hog sucker (hog sucker; Hypentelium nigricans ), and smallmouth bass (smallmouth; Micropterus dolomieu ) from streams in southeastern Missouri (USA) were analyzed for total mercury (HgT) and for stable isotopes of carbon (δ 13 C), nitrogen (δ 15 N), and sulfur (δ 34 S) to discern Hg transfer pathways. HgT concentrations were generally lowest in crayfish (0.005–0.112 μg/g dw) and highest in smallmouth (0.093–4.041 μg/g dw), as was δ 15 N. HgT was also lower and δ 15 N was higher in all biota from a stream draining a more heavily populated historical lead–zinc mining area than from similar sites with mostly undeveloped forested watersheds. δ 13 C in biota was lowest at spring-influenced sites, reflecting CO 2 inputs and temperature influences, and δ 34 S increased from south to north in all taxa. However, HgT was not strongly correlated with either δ 13 C or δ 34 S in biota. Trophic position (TP) computed from crayfish δ 15 N was lower in hog suckers (mean=2.8) than in smallmouth (mean=3.2), but not at all sites. HgT, δ 13 C, δ 34 S, and TP in hog suckers increased with total length (length) at some sites, indicating site-specific ontogenetic diet shifts. Changes with length were less evident in smallmouth. Length-adjusted HgT site means in both species were strongly correlated with HgT in crayfish ( r 2 =0.97, P <0.01), but not with HgT in Corbicula ( r 2 =0.02, P >0.05). ANCOVA and regression models incorporating only TP and, for hog suckers, length, accurately and precisely predicted HgT concentrations in both fish species from all locations. Although low compared to many areas of the USA, HgT (and therefore methylmercury) concentrations in smallmouth and hog suckers are sufficiently high to represent a threat to human health and wildlife. Our data indicate that in Ozark streams, Hg concentrations in crayfish are at least partly determined by their diet, with concentrations in hog suckers, smallmouth, and possibly other higher-level consumers largely determined by concentrations in crayfish and other primary and secondary consumers, fish growth rates, and TP.

Missouri↗
USGS2016

Evidence of estrogenic endocrine disruption in smallmouth and largemouth bass inhabiting Northeast U.S. National Wildlife Refuge waters: A reconnaissance study

Intersex as the manifestation of testicular oocytes (TO) in male gonochoristic fishes has been used as an indicator of estrogenic exposure. Here we evaluated largemouth bass ( Micropterus salmoides ) or smallmouth bass ( Micropterus dolomieu ) form 19 National Wildlife Refuges (NWRs) in the Northeast U.S. inhabiting waters on or near NWR lands for evidence of estrogenic endocrine disruption. Waterbodies sampled included rivers, lakes, impoundments, ponds, and reservoirs. Here we focus on evidence of endocrine disruption in male bass evidenced by gonad histopathology including intersex or abnormal plasma vitellogenin (Vtg) concentrations. During the fall seasons of 2008&ndash;2010, we collected male smallmouth bass ( n =118) from 12 sites and largemouth bass ( n =173) from 27 sites. Intersex in male smallmouth bass was observed at all sites and ranged from 60% to 100%; in male largemouth bass the range was 0&ndash;100%. Estrogenicity, as measured using a bioluminescent yeast reporter, was detected above the probable no effects concentration (0.73 ng/L) in ambient water samples from 79% of the NWR sites. Additionally, the presence of androgen receptor and glucocorticoid receptor ligands were noted as measured via novel nuclear receptor translocation assays. Mean plasma Vtg was elevated (>0.2 mg/ml) in male smallmouth bass at four sites and in male largemouth bass at one site. This is the first reconnaissance survey of this scope conducted on US National Wildlife Refuges. The baseline data collected here provide a necessary benchmark for future monitoring and justify more comprehensive NWR-specific studies.

Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New↗
USGS2017

Mercury and drought along the lower Carson River, Nevada: IV. Snowy egret post-fledging dispersal, timing of migration and survival, 2002–2004

This telemetry study is an extension of our 1997–2006 research on historical mercury contamination on snowy egrets ( Egretta thula ) up to ~ 20 days of age. Findings from initial studies at the mercury-contaminated Carson River colony at Lahontan Reservoir (LR) and a similar-sized reference (REF) colony on the Humboldt River included mercury-related physiological, biochemical, histopathological and reproductive effects up to ~20 days of age; with poor water years (2000–04), i.e., reduced prey availability, exacerbating effects. Herein, we compare timing of dispersal and migration at LR vs. REF, but the primary question now addressed is “whether survival of young mercury-exposed snowy egrets from LR would be further compromised beyond ~20 days of age? ” Based upon telemetry signals until 90–110 days of age (including dead bird counts and survival rate estimates), we conclude that mercury did not further compromise survival. Dead bird counts and survival rate estimates included time in the colony when fed by adults, plus the critical period when young dispersed from the colony to forage independently. The extended drought during this 3-year study was most critical in 2002 when production of ~20 d old egrets at LR was only 0.24 young/nest. In 2002, survival rates were low at both colonies and we documented the highest counts of dead egrets for both colonies. We suggest the losses in 2002 beyond 20 days of age were more a function of prey availability influenced by drought than exposure to mercury, especially at LR, because higher mercury concentrations, higher survival rates and fewer dead birds were documented at LR in 2003 when water conditions improved. Furthermore, total mercury (THg) in blood in 2003 was more than double 2002 (geometric mean, 3.39 vs 1.47 µg/g wet weight (ww). This higher THg exposure at LR in 2003 was associated with a redistribution of parent and post-dispersal feeding activities upstream (where there was higher mercury from historic mining) related to slightly improved water levels. When comparing the 3-year telemetry findings based upon ~20 d old young at LR (blood THg, geo. means 1.47, 3.39 and 1.89 µg/g ww), we found no evidence that age at dispersal, Julian date at dispersal, timing of migration, or pre-migration survival (~20 to ~100 days post-hatch) were adversely affected by elevated mercury.

Nevada↗
USGS2017

Mercury correlates with altered corticosterone but not testosterone or estradiol concentrations in common loons

We investigated the relation between environmental mercury exposure and corticosterone concentrations in free-living adult common loons ( Gavia immer ). We determined blood and feather mercury concentrations and compared them to testosterone, estradiol, and stress-induced plasma corticosterone concentrations. Although neither testosterone nor estradiol correlated with Hg levels, there was a robust positive relation between blood Hg and stress-induced corticosterone concentrations in males, but not in females. The lack of an effect in females may have been due to overall less contamination in females. There were no significant correlations between feather Hg and stress-induced corticosterone in either sex. To help determine whether Hg had a causal effect on corticosterone, we investigated the impact of experimental Hg intake on the corticosterone stress response in captive juvenile loons. Juveniles were subjected to three different feeding regimes: 0, 0.4 and 1.2 μg Hg (as MeHgCL)/g wet weight (ww) fish. We then measured baseline and 30 min post-solitary confinement stressor corticosterone concentrations. The Hg fed chicks exhibited a decreased ability to mount a stress response. From these data, we conclude that Hg contamination does appear to alter the corticosterone response to stress, but not in a consistent predictable pattern. Regardless of the direction of change, however, exposure to mercury contamination and the resulting impact on the corticosterone stress response in common loons may substantially impact health, fitness and survival.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2017

Overview of avian toxicity studies for the Deepwater Horizon Natural Resource Damage Assessment

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 establishes liability for injuries to natural resources because of the release or threat of release of oil. Assessment of injury to natural resources resulting from an oil spill and development and implementation of a plan for the restoration, rehabilitation, replacement or acquisition of natural resources to compensate for those injuries is accomplished through the Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) process. The NRDA process began within a week of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, which occurred on April 20, 2010. During the spill, more than 8500 dead and impaired birds representing at least 93 avian species were collected. In addition, there were more than 3500 birds observed to be visibly oiled. While information in the literature at the time helped to identify some of the effects of oil on birds, it was not sufficient to fully characterize the nature and extent of the injuries to the thousands of live oiled birds, or to quantify those injuries in terms of effects on bird viability. As a result, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed various assessment activities to inform NRDA injury determination and quantification analyses associated with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, including avian toxicity studies. The goal of these studies was to evaluate the effects of oral exposure to 1–20 ml of artificially weathered Mississippi Canyon 252 oil kg bw -1 day -1 from one to 28 days or one to five applications of oil to 20% of the bird's surface area. It was thought that these exposure levels would not result in immediate or short-term mortality but might result in physiological effects that ultimately could affect avian survival, reproduction and health. These studies included oral dosing studies, an external dosing study, metabolic and flight performance studies and field-based flight studies. Results of these studies indicated changes in hematologic endpoints including formation of Heinz bodies and changes in cell counts. There were also effects on multiple organ systems, cardiac function and oxidative status. External oiling affected flight patterns and time spent during flight tasks indicating that migration may be affected by short-term repeated exposure to oil. Feather damage also resulted in increased heat loss and energetic demands. The papers in this special issue indicate that the combined effects of oil toxicity and feather effects in avian species, even in the case of relatively light oiling, can significantly affect the overall health of birds.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2017

CYP1A protein expression and catalytic activity in double-crested cormorants experimentally exposed to Deepwater Horizon Mississippi Canyon 252 oil

Double-crested cormorants ( Phalacrocorax auritus , DCCO) were orally exposed to Deepwater Horizon Mississippi Canyon 252 (DWH) oil to investigate oil-induced toxicological impacts. Livers were collected for multiple analyses including cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) enzymatic activity and protein expression. CYP1A enzymatic activity was measured by alkoxyresorufin O-dealkylase (AROD) assays. Activities specific to the O-dealkylation of four resorufin ethers are reported: benzyloxyresorufin O-debenzylase (BROD), ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD), methoxyresorufin O-demethylase (MROD), and pentoxyresorufin O-depentylase (PROD). CYP1A protein expression was measured by western blot analysis with a CYP1A1 mouse monoclonal antibody. In study 1, hepatic BROD, EROD, and PROD activities were significantly induced in DCCO orally exposed to 20 ml/kg body weight (bw) oil as a single dose or daily for 5 days. Western blot analysis revealed hepatic CYP1A protein induction in both treatment groups. In study 2 (5 ml/kg bw oil or 10 ml/kg bw oil, 21 day exposure), all four hepatic ARODs were significantly induced. Western blots showed an increase in hepatic CYP1A expression in both treatment groups with a significant induction in birds exposed to 10 ml/kg oil. Significant correlations were detected among all 4 AROD activities in both studies and between CYP1A protein expression and both MROD and PROD activities in study 2. EROD activity was highest for both treatment groups in both studies while BROD activity had the greatest fold-induction. While PROD activity values were consistently low, the fold-induction was high, usually 2nd highest to BROD activity. The observed induced AROD profiles detected in the present studies suggest both CYP1A4/1A5 DCCO isoforms are being induced after MC252 oil ingestion. A review of the literature on avian CYP1A AROD activity levels and protein expression after exposure to CYP1A inducers highlights the need for species-specific studies to accurately evaluate avian exposure to oil.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2019

In ovo exposure to brominated flame retardants Part II: Assessment of effects of TBBPA-BDBPE and BTBPE on hatching success, morphometric and physiological endpoints in American kestrels

Tetrabromobisphenol A bis(2,3-dibromopropyl ether) (TBBPA-BDBPE) and 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTPBE) are both brominated flame retardants (BFRs) that have been detected in birds; however, their potential biological effects are largely unknown. We assessed the effects of embryonic exposure to TBBPA-BDBPE and BTBPE in a model avian predator, the American kestrel ( Falco sparverius ). Fertile eggs from a captive population of kestrels were injected on embryonic day 5 (ED5) with a vehicle control or one of three doses within the range of concentrations that have been detected in biota (nominal concentrations of 0, 10, 50 or 100 ng/g egg; measured concentrations 0, 3.0, 13.7 or 33.5 ng TBBPA-BDBPE/g egg and 0, 5.3, 26.8 or 58.1 ng BTBPE/g egg). Eggs were artificially incubated until hatching (ED28), at which point blood and tissues were collected to measure morphological and physiological endpoints, including organ somatic indices, circulating and glandular thyroid hormone concentrations, thyroid gland histology, hepatic deiodinase activity, and markers of oxidative stress. Neither compound had any effects on embryo survival through 90% of the incubation period or on hatching success, body mass, organ size, or oxidative stress of hatchlings. There was evidence of sex-specific effects in the thyroid system responses to the BTBPE exposures, with type 2 deiodinase (D2) activity decreasing at higher doses in female, but not in male hatchlings, suggesting that females may be more sensitive to BTBPE. However, there were no effects of TBBPA-BDBPE on the thyroid system in kestrels. For the BTPBE study, a subset of high-dose eggs was collected throughout the incubation period to measure changes in BTBPE concentrations. There was no decrease in BTBPE over the incubation period, suggesting that BTBPE is slowly metabolized by kestrel embryos throughout their ∼28-d development. These two compounds, therefore, do not appear to be particularly toxic to embryos of the American kestrel.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2019

In ovo exposure to brominated flame retardants Part I: Assessment of effects of TBBPA-BDBPE on survival, morphometric and physiological endpoints in zebra finches

Tetrabromobisphenol A bis(2,3-dibromopropyl) ether (TBBPA-BDBPE) is an additive flame retardant used in polyolefins and polymers. It has been detected in biota, including in avian eggs, yet little is known of its effects. We assessed the pattern of TBBPA-BDBPE concentrations in songbird eggs over the incubation period, and the effects of embryonic exposure to TBBPA-BDBPE in a model songbird species, the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata). To assess concentrations during embryo development, eggs were injected on the day they were laid with the vehicle control (safflower oil) or 100 ng TBBPA-BDBPE/g egg, and whole egg contents were collected throughout embryonic development on day 0 (unincubated), 5, 10 and 13. To evaluate effects of embryonic exposure to TBBPA-BDBPE, eggs were injected at Hamburger-Hamilton stage 18 (~80 hours after initiation of incubation) with safflower oil only, 10, 50 or 100 ng TBBPA-BDBPE/g egg (albumin injection volume 1 µl/g). Eggs were monitored for hatching success, and nestlings were monitored for growth and survival. At 15 days post-hatch, tissues were collected to assess physiological effects. TBBPA-BDBPE was incorporated into the egg as the embryo developed, and concentrations started declining in late incubation, suggesting biotransformation by the embryo. There were no effects on hatching success, nestling survival, growth, organ somatic indices, or thyroid hormone homeostasis; however, there was evidence that body condition declined in a dose-dependent manner towards the end of the rapid nestling growth phase. This decreased body condition could be a delayed effect of early developmental exposure, or it may be the result of increased exposure to biotransformation products of TBBPA-BDBPE produced over the nestling period, which are predicted to be more bioaccumulative and toxic than the parent compound.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2019

Bloom forming cyanobacteria can adversely affect zebra and quagga mussel veligers

Quagga ( Dreissena rostriformis bugensis ) and zebra ( D. polymorpha ) mussels are broadcast spawners that produce planktonic, free swimming veligers, a life history strategy dissimilar to native North American freshwater bivalves. Dreissenid veligers require highly nutritious food to grow and survive, and thus may be susceptible to increased mortality rates during harsh environmental conditions like cyanobacteria blooms. However, the impact of cyanobacteria and one of the toxins they can produce (microcystin) has not been evaluated in dreissenid veligers. Therefore, we exposed dreissenid veligers to eleven distinct cultures (isolates) of cyanobacteria representing Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Dolichospermum, Microcystis, and Planktothrix species and the cyanotoxin microcystin to determine the lethality of cyanobacteria on dreissenid veligers. Six-day laboratory bioassays were performed in microplates using dreissenid veligers collected from the Detroit River, Michigan, USA. Veligers were exposed to increasing concentrations of cyanobacteria and microcystin using the green algae Chlorella minutissima as a control. Based on dose response curves formulated from a Probit model, the LC 50 values for cyanobacteria used in this study range between 15.06 and 135.06 μg/L chlorophyll- a , with the LC 50 for microcystin-LR at 13.03 μg/L. Because LC 50 values were within ranges observed in natural waterbodies, it is possible that dreissenid recruitment may be suppressed when veliger abundances overlap with seasonal cyanobacteria blooms. Thus, the toxicity of cyanobacteria to dreissenid veligers may be useful to include in models forecasting dreissenid mussel abundance and spread.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2022

The relative importance of mercury methylation and demethylation in rice paddy soil varies depending on the presence of rice plants

Neurotoxic methylmercury (MeHg) accumulates in rice grain from paddy soil, where its concentration is controlled by microbial mercury methylation and demethylation. Both up- and down-regulation of methylation is known to occur in the presence of rice plants in comparison to non-vegetated paddy soils; the influence of rice plant presence/absence on demethylation is unknown. To assess the concurrent influence of rice plant presence/absence on methylation and demethylation, and to determine which process was more dominant in controlling soil MeHg concentrations, we maintained six rhizoboxes of paddy soil with and without rice plants. At the peak of plant growth, we simultaneously measured ambient MeHg, ambient inorganic mercury (IHg), and potential rate constants of methylation and demethylation (K meth and K demeth ) in soil using stable isotope tracers and ID-GC-ICPMS. We also measured organic matter content, elemental S, and water-extractable sulfate. We found MeHg concentrations were differentially controlled by MeHg production and degradation processes, depending on whether plants were present. In non-vegetated boxes, MeHg concentration was controlled by K meth , as evidenced by a strong and positive correlation, while K demeth had no relation to MeHg concentration. These results indicate methylation was the dominant driver of MeHg concentration in non-vegetated soil. In vegetated boxes, K demeth strongly and negatively predicted MeHg concentration, indicating that demethylation was the dominant control in soil with plants. MeHg concentration, K meth , and % MeHg all had significantly less variance in vegetated than in non-vegetated soils due to a consistent elimination of greater values. This pattern suggests that reduced MeHg production capacity was a secondary control on MeHg concentrations in vegetated soils. We observed no difference in the magnitude or variance of K demeth between treatments, suggesting that demethylation was robust to soil chemical conditions influenced by the plant, perhaps because of a wider taxonomic diversity of demethylators. Our results suggest that methylation and demethylation processes could both be leveraged to alter MeHg concentrations in rice paddy soil.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2003

Review of residue-based selenium toxicity thresholds for freshwater fish

A variety of guidelines have been proposed in recent years for linking selenium concentrations in the whole body of fish or in diet with adverse effects in fish. Diverging viewpoints seem to be forming separating groups supporting either the low-selenium guidelines proposed by the government and academic researchers or the high-selenium guidelines proposed by other researchers. Recently, an article was published that reviewed selected studies and recommended guidelines for selenium concentrations in the whole body of fish and in diet that were higher than those proposed by other researchers (≈4 μg/g in whole body and 3–4 μg/g in diet). That article also recommended separating guidelines for coldwater fish (6 μg/g in whole body and 11 μg/g in diet) and warmwater fish (9 μg/g in whole body and 10 μg/g in diet). The approaches, information, and guidelines presented in the article are reviewed and problems in their interpretation and conclusions are discussed. The majority of the selenium literature supports a whole-body threshold of 4 μg/g in fish and 3 μg/g in diet.

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety↗
USGS2017

Recommended approaches to the scientific evaluation of ecotoxicological hazards and risks of endocrine-active substances

A SETAC Pellston Workshop ® “Environmental Hazard and Risk Assessment Approaches for Endocrine-Active Substances (EHRA)” was held in February 2016 in Pensacola, Florida, USA. The primary objective of the workshop was to provide advice, based on current scientific understanding, to regulators and policy makers; the aim being to make considered, informed decisions on whether to select an ecotoxicological hazard- or a risk-based approach for regulating a given endocrine-disrupting substance (EDS) under review. The workshop additionally considered recent developments in the identification of EDS. Case studies were undertaken on 6 endocrine-active substances (EAS—not necessarily proven EDS, but substances known to interact directly with the endocrine system) that are representative of a range of perturbations of the endocrine system and considered to be data rich in relevant information at multiple biological levels of organization for 1 or more ecologically relevant taxa. The substances selected were 17α-ethinylestradiol, perchlorate, propiconazole, 17β-trenbolone, tributyltin, and vinclozolin. The 6 case studies were not comprehensive safety evaluations but provided foundations for clarifying key issues and procedures that should be considered when assessing the ecotoxicological hazards and risks of EAS and EDS. The workshop also highlighted areas of scientific uncertainty, and made specific recommendations for research and methods-development to resolve some of the identified issues. The present paper provides broad guidance for scientists in regulatory authorities, industry, and academia on issues likely to arise during the ecotoxicological hazard and risk assessment of EAS and EDS. The primary conclusion of this paper, and of the SETAC Pellston Workshop on which it is based, is that if data on environmental exposure, effects on sensitive species and life-stages, delayed effects, and effects at low concentrations are robust, initiating environmental risk assessment of EDS is scientifically sound and sufficiently reliable and protective of the environment. In the absence of such data, assessment on the basis of hazard is scientifically justified until such time as relevant new information is available.

Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management↗