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At least 343 records · Page 19Linked to original sources
USGS2007

Mercury accumulation in periphyton of eight river ecosystems

In 2003, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) program and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency studied total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations in periphyton at eight rivers in the United States in coordination with a larger USGS study on mercury cycling in rivers. Periphyton samples were collected using trace element clean techniques and NAWQA sampling protocols in spring and fall from targeted habitats (streambed surface-sediment, cobble, or woody snags) at each river site. A positive correlation was observed between concentrations of THg and MeHg in periphyton (r2 = 0.88, in log-log space). Mean MeHg and THg concentrations in surface-sediment periphyton were significantly higher (1,333 ng/m2 for MeHg and 53,980 ng/m2 for THg) than cobble (64 ng/m2 for MeHg and 1,192 ng/m2 for THg) or woody snag (71 ng/m2 for MeHg and 1,089 ng/m2 for THg) periphyton. Concentrations of THg in surface-sediment periphyton had a strong positive correlation with concentrations of THg in sediment (dry weight). The ratio of MeHg:THg in surface-sediment periphyton increased with the ratio of MeHg:THg in sediment. These data suggest periphyton may play a key role in mercury bioaccumulation in river ecosystems. ?? 2007 American Water Resources Association.

Journal of the American Water Resources Associatio↗
USGS1974

New activities at the U.S. Geological Survey

As the Nation's principal source of information about the configuration of the land surface, the composition and structure of the rocks at and beneath the surface, the distribution and character of its energy, mineral, and water resources, and the nature of natural geologic processes, the U. S. Geological Survey focuses its work on some of the Nation's most critical problems. As the Survey tackles new problems with new techniques, it is fully aware of the resource needs and environmental pressures of an expanding economy and growing population.

General Information Product↗
USGS2007

Ground-penetrating radar: A tool for monitoring bridge scour

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data were acquired across shallow streams and/or drainage ditches at 10 bridge sites in Missouri by maneuvering the antennae across the surface of the water and riverbank from the bridge deck, manually or by boat. The acquired two-dimensional and three-dimensional data sets accurately image the channel bottom, demonstrating that the GPR tool can be used to estimate and/or monitor water depths in shallow fluvial environments. The study results demonstrate that the GPR tool is a safe and effective tool for measuring and/or monitoring scour in proximity to bridges. The technique can be used to safely monitor scour at assigned time intervals during peak flood stages, thereby enabling owners to take preventative action prior to potential failure. The GPR tool can also be used to investigate depositional and erosional patterns over time, thereby elucidating these processes on a local scale. In certain instances, in-filled scour features can also be imaged and mapped. This information may be critically important to those engaged in bridge design. GPR has advantages over other tools commonly employed for monitoring bridge scour (reflection seismic profiling, echo sounding, and electrical conductivity probing). The tool doesn't need to be coupled to the water, can be moved rapidly across (or above) the surface of a stream, and provides an accurate depth-structure model of the channel bottom and subchannel bottom sediments. The GPR profiles can be extended across emerged sand bars or onto the shore.

Environmental & Engineering Geoscience↗
USGS2021

Evaluation of larval lamprey survival following salvage: A pilot study

Larval lampreys ( Entosphenus tridentatus and Lampetra spp.) are vulnerable to anthropogenic water-level fluctuations that can dewater their habitat. Dewatering events occur regularly in the Columbia River Basin for operation and management of hydropower facilities, seasonal or maintenance closures of irrigation diversions, and in-water construction projects, including for habitat restoration. Salvage efforts which can be initiated before, during, and after dewatering events are resource-intensive and are conducted based on the assumption that salvage will reduce lamprey mortality. This pilot study was the first formal assessment of the efficacy of salvage efforts, evaluating the survival and performance of larval lamprey following various salvage techniques. Lampreys were salvaged during dewatering events at three field sites under variable environmental conditions (summer and fall of 2020) and then held in the laboratory for 60 days to monitor survival, growth, and burrowing performance. Four salvage treatments were defined to represent combinations of typical salvage techniques and stressors, including multiple passes of standard electrofishing (SEF), lamprey-specific electrofishing (LEF), and modified lamprey-specific electrofishing (MLEF; probes in direct contact with dewatered, but moist substrate) as well as extended exposure on the surface and walking on sediment where lampreys were burrowed. Control groups did not experience dewatering and were collected using LEF in areas away from treatment groups. Treatments were designed to increase in intensity, from treatment 1 (walking and exposure) to treatment 4 (multiple passes of SEF, LEF and MLEF). Study sites included an earthen hatchery rearing pond (North Toutle Hatchery) dewatered in July, and two irrigation diversions (Wapato and Sunnyside diversions on Yakima River) dewatered at the end of the irrigation season in October. Treatments were executed inside circular 1 m2 enclosures that were randomly positioned in habitats expected to be dewatered. A solid, weighted ring at the bottom of the enclosure penetrated the sediment and netting extended through the water column to a floating upper ring. We deployed eight enclosures per treatment at each test site, executed the four salvage treatments, collected lamprey from within each enclosure and transported them to the laboratory, along with the control groups, for the 60-day holding period. Burrowing performance was tested in sand 1 day after the field effort and in field-collected sediment 30 days after the field effort. Mortality was documented and lamprey were measured at 1, 30, and 60 days in the laboratory and fish weights were used to calculate standard growth rate (SGR) for each site and treatment group. We collected 328 larval lampreys at our three test sites, including 71 controls and 257 larvae exposed to dewatering and salvage treatments. Overall mortality for the 60-day laboratory holding period was 11.9%. Most mortality occurred within 1-day after treatment (51.3%) and there was limited mortality past 30 days (2.6%). At the North Toutle Hatchery, we observed substantial mortality during the field tests in July, both inside and outside of our test enclosures. Mortality within our test enclosures ranged from 96.7 to 98.8% for treatment 1, 45.9 to 52.2% for treatment 3 and 6.7 to 7.1% for treatment 4. The elevated mortality at this site and logistical challenges with the execution of treatments 1 and 2 resulted in few fish (5 total for treatment 1) or no fish (treatment 2) available for testing in the laboratory. Only one larval lamprey died during field tests at the Wapato and Sunnyside irrigation diversions during testing in October. The single mortality was in treatment 1 (11.1%) and no mortalities were observed outside of the test enclosures. We used logistic regression to estimate survival of larval lampreys transported to the laboratory and held for 24 h. The Wapato and Sunnyside field sites were pooled for logistic regression and the North Toutle Hatchery site was analyzed separately due to dramatically different environmental conditions. We found that treatment 1 reduced larval survival more than any other treatment during both the summer and fall dewatering events. Trends among survival for treatments 2-4 were less clear. The unique stressor included in the first treatment, but not in other treatments, was a 2-hour exposure period during which larvae were left lying on the surface of the sediment. Treatment 1 also experienced a walking action (foot pressure on the surface of the exposed sediment). The walking action was also included in treatment 4, both before and after dewatering, along with multiple passes of various electrofishing techniques, as this treatment was designed to be a worst-case scenario for lamprey salvage. Despite what appeared to be significant stressors associated with treatment 4, the logistic regression for survival up to 24 hours in the laboratory showed that the odds of surviving treatment 4 were 16 times higher than the odds of surviving treatment 1 at Wapato and Sunnyside (combined). The same comparison at the North Toutle Hatchery showed the odds were 226 times higher for lamprey to survive treatment 4 compared to treatment 1. Lamprey from all study sites initiated burrowing activity with median times less than 10.5 seconds in both sand (day 1) and field-collected sediment (day 30). The fastest burrowing start times were less than 1.0 second and the slowest was 3.2 minutes. Lamprey behavioral responses during burrowing ability tests were variable. Some lampreys immediately moved from the release location near the surface of the water toward the sediment and began burrowing while others swam around the aquarium near the surface of the water before exploring the sediment to select a burrowing location. The median time to complete burrowing for all treatment groups and sample periods ranged from 9.9 to 48.1 seconds. No significant differences in SGR were detected between treatment and control groups at any test site. Laboratory water temperatures for the North Toutle Hatchery study groups were maintained at 15°C, giving lamprey a growth advantage compared to the Wapato and Sunnyside groups which were maintained at 10℃. SGR for lamprey collected at the North Toutle Hatchery ranged from 0.83% weight gain/day for controls to 2.04%/day for treatment 3. SGR at Wapato ranged from 0.27 to 0.67%/day and from 0.60 to 0.90 %/day at Sunnyside. Overall, SGR was consistently lower at every site for the controls compared to any of the treatment groups, although none of the differences were significant. The variability at some sites in initial lamprey size, combined with inherent variability in growth rates, limited our ability to make conclusions about how different salvage treatments influenced SGR. Treatment 1 stood out among the salvage treatments at all study sites. In this treatment, lampreys exposed on the surface of the sediment, awaiting salvage, were vulnerable to reduced survival, even under mild environmental conditions. The risk of mortality was greatest for the summer dewatering event at the North Toutle Hatchery. The remaining treatments, even with multiple passes of various electrofishing techniques, did not generally have large negative impacts on lamprey during our tests. Lamprey survival rates for these treatments were relatively high, especially at the fall dewatering sites when environmental conditions were mild. Thus, salvage efforts, despite being resource intensive, likely have limited negative outcomes for larval lamprey and make substantial contributions to lamprey conservation efforts.

Report↗
USGS2025

Preprint: Simulated seasonal loads of total nitrogen and total phosphorus by major source from watersheds draining to Washington waters of the Salish Sea, 2005 through 2020

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Washington State Department of Ecology (Ecology) have developed watershed models of seasonal load estimates of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) discharging into the Washington waters of the Salish Sea from 2005 through 2020. The modeling approach used was dynamic SPARROW (SPAtially Referenced Regressions On Watershed attributes), a statistical-physical watershed modeling technique, initially applied at large spatial scales to represent long-term average stream loads throughout a stream network, refined here to estimate seasonal TN and TP loads across watersheds to clarify upstream contributions from discernable point and nonpoint sources delivered to marine waters at surface water confluences along the shoreline and quantify when, where, and why they were high or low. Upstream contributing sources included permitted treated wastewater facilities, crop fertilizer, animal feeding operations, septic systems, urban land and stormwater, atmospheric deposition (TN only), nitrogen fixation by Red Alder Alnus rubra trees (TN only), and background geologic material (TP only). Instream load magnitudes and their source compositions varied widely across watersheds, and even within each watershed, yet the largest loads typically occurred in the large rivers during winter and fall when streamflow was highest. Likewise, instream loads were typically lowest in summer during low streamflow, yet the relative instream aquatic decay was highest. The seasonal storage lag component of those nonpoint sources was estimated to contribute a quarter of the seasonal instream load during winter and fall high streamflow and sometimes half of the instream load during summer low streamflow. A key aspect of Ecology’s current Puget Sound Nutrient Source Reduction Project is consideration of upstream watershed contributions of nutrients to their marine-water discharge points. Simulated seasonal loads carried by streams to 63 river mouth marine discharge points 9 ranged by several orders-of-magnitude for both TN and TP due to the spatial and seasonal differences in hydrologic flows, magnitude and timing of contributing sources, and in-stream decay. The Snohomish and Skagit Rivers discharged the largest TN and TP loads, yet the Samish River was shown to have some of the highest TN and TP yields and concentrations. Additionally, a reference scenario was developed to provide an estimate of the pre-industrial local and regional loads.

ESS Open Archive↗
USGS2011

A promising tool for subsurface permafrost mapping-An application of airborne geophysics from the Yukon River Basin, Alaska

Permafrost is a predominant physical feature of the Earth's Arctic and Subarctic clines and a major consideration encompassing ecosystem structure to infrastructure engineering and placement. Perennially frozen ground is estimated to cover about 85 percent of the state of Alaska where northern reaches are underlain with continuous permafrost and parts of interior Alaska are underlain by areas of discontinuous and (or) sporadic permafrost (fig. 1). The region of Interior Alaska, where permafrost is scattered among unfrozen ground, is a complex mosaic of terrains and habitats. Such diversity creates arrays of lakes and surface-water and groundwater patterns that continental populations of migratory waterfowl and internationally significant fisheries have adapted to over time. A road or pipeline might pass over frozen and unfrozen ground, affecting the types of materials and engineering approaches needed to sustain the infrastructure. Effective mapping of discontinuous permafrost at scales meaningful ecologically and (or) from an engineering perspective has been a long-standing challenge. Using techniques such as borehole logging for site-specific assessments or botanical techniques that can suggest underlying permafrost distributions can be labor intensive and difficult to accomplish at the scale and remoteness of much of Alaska. The climate is changing in the Arctic and Subarctic regions. The warming observed throughout much of Alaska could create widespread changes in permafrost. How the warming of the permafrost affects near-surface processes, ecosystems, and community infrastructure and ecosystems is not clear. A better understanding of the dynamic distribution and physical properties of permafrost, from continuous to discontinuous, will provide knowledge of how the permafrost environment may change in the future and help inform engineering and natural resource response strategies. Here we discuss an application of an airborne remote sensing methodology for mapping and shade imaging permafrost characteristics at various scales. This work provides the first look into three-dimensional distribution of permafrost in the areas around Fort Yukon and is a demonstration of the application of airborne electromagnetic (AEM) to permafrost mapping. Such an approach is attractive, particularly in Arctic and Subarctic studies, where ground access is difficult and ecosystems are fragile. In June 2010, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducted an AEM survey near Fort Yukon, Alaska. The primary focus of this survey was to map the distribution of permafrost in selected areas in order to supply information for the development of groundwater models of the Yukon River Basin. However, the methodologies have more far-reaching ecological and engineering applications. Approximately 1,800 line kilometers were acquired in a combination of typical block style surveying in the immediate area of Fort Yukon and in long reconnaissance lines over a broader area. The widely spaced lines were flown to cross the modern Yukon River in "X" like patterns with intersections at features that have been previously studied (fig. 2). AEM is used to gather data on the electrical resistivity of materials in the subsurface below the flight path of the helicopter, which are then analyzed to interpret the subsurface lithology and the location and extent of permafrost. For this survey, the electrical resistivity was imaged to depths on the order of 50-100 meters. Images from the survey can be qualitatively compared with known permafrost features and suggest new permafrost features. Electrical properties of earth materials are affected by lithology as well as temperature and the presence of ice; frozen materials become substantially more resistive. This allows for the identification of permafrost from the resistivity image (Abraham and others, 2011). In the area of Fort Yukon, the AEM survey shows elevated resistivities extending to depth, likely indicative of thick permafrost. This depth corresponds well to observations from a borehole drilled in the area in the late 1990s, which detected permafrost to a depth of about 100 meters (Clark and others, 2009). In contrast to the area of Fort Yukon, the Yukon River and its floodplain are not associated with deep resistive sediments, suggesting a lack of deep permafrost, at least within the depth range of the AEM mapping (fig. 3).

Yukon River Basin↗
USGS2009

Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Livestock in the United States, 2005

Livestock water use includes ground water and surface water associated with livestock watering, feedlots, dairy operations, and other on-farm needs. The water may be used for drinking, cooling, sanitation, waste disposal, and other needs related to the animals. Estimates of water withdrawals for livestock are needed for water planning and management. This report documents a method used to estimate withdrawals of fresh ground water and surface water for livestock in 2005 for each county and county equivalent in the United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Categories of livestock included dairy cattle, beef and other cattle, hogs and pigs, laying hens, broilers and other chickens, turkeys, sheep and lambs, all goats, and horses (including ponies, mules, burros, and donkeys). Use of the method described in this report could result in more consistent water-withdrawal estimates for livestock that can be used by water managers and planners to determine water needs and trends across the United States. Water withdrawals for livestock in 2005 were estimated by using water-use coefficients, in gallons per head per day for each animal type, and livestock-population data. Coefficients for various livestock for most States were obtained from U.S. Geological Survey water-use program personnel or U.S. Geological Survey water-use publications. When no coefficient was available for an animal type in a State, the median value of reported coefficients for that animal was used. Livestock-population data were provided by the National Agricultural Statistics Service. County estimates were further divided into ground-water and surface-water withdrawals for each county and county equivalent. County totals from 2005 were compared to county totals from 1995 and 2000. Large deviations from 1995 or 2000 livestock withdrawal estimates were investigated and generally were due to comparison with reported withdrawals, differences in estimation techniques, differences in livestock coefficients, or use of livestock-population data from different sources. The results of this study were distributed to U.S. Geological Survey water-use program personnel in each State during 2007. Water-use program personnel are required to submit estimated withdrawals for all categories of use in their States to the National Water-Use Information Program for inclusion in a national report describing water use in the United States during 2005. Water-use program personnel had the option of submitting these estimates, a modified version of these estimates, or their own set of estimates or reported data. Estimated withdrawals resulting from the method described in this report are not presented herein to avoid potential inconsistencies with estimated withdrawals for livestock that will be presented in the national report, as different methods used by water-use personnel may result in different withdrawal estimates. Estimated withdrawals also are not presented to avoid potential disclosure of data for individual livestock operations.

Scientific Investigations Report↗
USGS2013

Approaches in highly parameterized inversion: bgaPEST, a Bayesian geostatistical approach implementation with PEST: documentation and instructions

The application bgaPEST is a highly parameterized inversion software package implementing the Bayesian Geostatistical Approach in a framework compatible with the parameter estimation suite PEST. Highly parameterized inversion refers to cases in which parameters are distributed in space or time and are correlated with one another. The Bayesian aspect of bgaPEST is related to Bayesian probability theory in which prior information about parameters is formally revised on the basis of the calibration dataset used for the inversion. Conceptually, this approach formalizes the conditionality of estimated parameters on the specific data and model available. The geostatistical component of the method refers to the way in which prior information about the parameters is used. A geostatistical autocorrelation function is used to enforce structure on the parameters to avoid overfitting and unrealistic results. Bayesian Geostatistical Approach is designed to provide the smoothest solution that is consistent with the data. Optionally, users can specify a level of fit or estimate a balance between fit and model complexity informed by the data. Groundwater and surface-water applications are used as examples in this text, but the possible uses of bgaPEST extend to any distributed parameter applications.

Techniques and Methods↗
USGS2020

Chapter A6.2. Dissolved oxygen

The “National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality Data” (NFM) provides guidelines and procedures for U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) personnel who collect data used to assess the quality of the Nation’s surface water and groundwater resources. This chapter, NFM A6.2, provides guidance and protocols for the measurement of dissolved oxygen, which include the scientific basis of the measurement, selection and maintenance of equipment, calibration, troubleshooting, and procedures for measurement and reporting. It updates and supersedes USGS Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, book 9, chapter A6.2, version 3.0, by Stewart A, Rounds, Franceska D. Wilde, and George F. Ritz. Dissolved oxygen is routinely measured when water samples are collected, is often continually measured at USGS streamgages, and is a parameter regularly measured during laboratory and field experiments. The field method for measuring dissolved oxygen described in this chapter is applicable to most natural waters. Before 2017, the USGS NFM chapters were released in the USGS Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations series. Effective in 2018, new and revised NFM chapters are being released in the USGS Techniques and Methods series; this series change does not affect the content and format of the NFM. More information is in the general introduction to the NFM (USGS Techniques and Methods, book 9, chapter A0—U.S. Geological Survey, 2018) at https://doi.org/10.3133/tm9A0 . The authoritative current versions of NFM chapters are available in the USGS Publications Warehouse at https://pubs.er.usgs.gov . Comments, questions, and suggestions related to the NFM can be addressed to nfm@usgs.gov .

Techniques and Methods↗
USGS2002

Testing the sensitivity of pumpage to increases in surficial aquifer system heads in the Cypress Creek well-field area, west-central Florida — An optimization technique

Tampa Bay depends on ground water for most of the water supply. Numerous wetlands and lakes in Pasco County have been impacted by the high demand for ground water. Central Pasco County, particularly the area within the Cypress Creek well field, has been greatly affected. Probable causes for the decline in surface-water levels are well-field pumpage and a decade-long drought. Efforts are underway to increase surface-water levels by developing alternative sources of water supply, thus reducing the quantity of well-field pumpage. Numerical ground-water flow simulations coupled with an optimization routine were used in a series of simulations to test the sensitivity of optimal pumpage to desired increases in surficial aquifer system heads in the Cypress Creek well field. The ground-water system was simulated using the central northern Tampa Bay ground-water flow model. Pumping solutions for 1987 equilibrium conditions and for a transient 6-month timeframe were determined for five test cases, each reflecting a range of desired target recovery heads at different head control sites in the surficial aquifer system. Results are presented in the form of curves relating average head recovery to total optimal pumpage. Pumping solutions are sensitive to the location of head control sites formulated in the optimization problem and as expected, total optimal pumpage decreased when desired target head increased. The distribution of optimal pumpage for individual production wells also was significantly affected by the location of head control sites. A pumping advantage was gained for test-case formulations where hydraulic heads were maximized in cells near the production wells, in cells within the steady-state pumping center cone of depression, and in cells within the area of the well field where confining-unit leakance is the highest. More water was pumped and the ratio of head recovery per unit decrease in optimal pumpage was more than double for test cases where hydraulic heads are maximized in cells located at or near the production wells. Additionally, the ratio of head recovery per unit decrease in pumpage was about three times more for the area where confining-unit leakance is the highest than for other leakance zone areas of the well field. For many head control sites, optimal heads corresponding to optimal pumpage deviated from the desired target recovery heads. Overall, pumping solutions were constrained by the limiting recovery values, initial head conditions, and by upper boundary conditions of the ground-water flow model.

Florida↗
USGS2007

A rapid method for hydraulic profiling in unconsolidated formations

Information on vertical variations in hydraulic conductivity (K) can often shed much light on how a contaminant will move in the subsurface. The direct-push injection logger has been developed to rapidly obtain such information in shallow unconsolidated settings. This small-diameter tool consists of a short screen located just behind a drive point. The tool is advanced into the subsurface while water is injected through the screen to keep it clear. Upon reaching a depth at which information about K is desired, advancement ceases and the injection rate and pressure are measured on the land surface. The rate and pressure values are used in a ratio that serves as a proxy for K. A vertical profile of this ratio can be transformed into a K profile through regressions with K estimates determined using other techniques. The viability of the approach was assessed at an extensively studied field site in eastern Germany. The assessment demonstrated that this tool can rapidly identify zones that may serve as conduits for or barriers to contaminant movement. ?? 2007 The Author(s).

Ground Water↗
USGS2016

High spatio-temporal resolution observations of crater-lake temperatures at Kawah Ijen volcano, East Java, Indonesia

The crater lake of Kawah Ijen volcano, East Java, Indonesia, has displayed large and rapid changes in temperature at point locations during periods of unrest, but measurement techniques employed to-date have not resolved how the lake’s thermal regime has evolved over both space and time. We applied a novel approach for mapping and monitoring variations in crater-lake apparent surface (“skin”) temperatures at high spatial (~32 cm) and temporal (every two minutes) resolution at Kawah Ijen on 18 September 2014. We used a ground-based FLIR T650sc camera with digital and thermal infrared (TIR) sensors from the crater rim to collect (1) a set of visible imagery around the crater during the daytime and (2) a time series of co-located visible and TIR imagery at one location from pre-dawn to daytime. We processed daytime visible imagery with the Structure-from-Motion photogrammetric method to create a digital elevation model onto which the time series of TIR imagery was orthorectified and georeferenced. Lake apparent skin temperatures typically ranged from ~21 to 33oC. At two locations, apparent skin temperatures were ~ 4 and 7 oC less than in-situ lake temperature measurements at 1.5 and 5 m depth, respectively. These differences, as well as the large spatio-temporal variations observed in skin temperatures, were likely largely associated with atmospheric effects such as evaporative cooling of the lake surface and infrared absorption by water vapor and SO2. Calculations based on orthorectified TIR imagery thus yielded underestimates of volcanic heat fluxes into the lake, whereas volcanic heat fluxes estimated based on in-situ temperature measurements (68 to 111 MW) were likely more representative of Kawah Ijen in a quiescent state. The ground-based imaging technique should provide a valuable tool to continuously monitor crater-lake temperatures and contribute insight into the spatio-temporal evolution of these temperatures associated with volcanic activity.

Kawah Ijen volcano↗
USGS2014

Evaluation of groundwater and surface-water interactions in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area, Caddo County, Oklahoma, 2010-13

Streamflows, springs, and wetlands are important natural and cultural resources to the Caddo Nation. Consequently, the Caddo Nation is concerned about the vulnerability of the Rush Springs aquifer to overdrafting and whether the aquifer will continue to be a viable source of water to tribal members and other local residents in the future. Interest in the long-term viability of local water resources has resulted in ongoing development of a comprehensive water plan by the Caddo Nation. As part of a multiyear project with the Caddo Nation to provide information and tools to better manage and protect water resources, the U.S. Geological Survey studied the hydraulic connection between the Rush Springs aquifer and springs and streams overlying the aquifer. The Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area is located in southwestern Oklahoma, primarily in Caddo County. Underlying the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area is the Permian-age Rush Springs aquifer. Water from the Rush Springs aquifer is used for irrigation, public, livestock and aquaculture, and other supply purposes. Groundwater from the Rush Springs aquifer also is withdrawn by domestic (self-supplied) wells, although domestic use was not included in the water-use summary in this report. Perennial streamflow in many streams and creeks overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, such as Cobb Creek, Lake Creek, and Willow Creek, originates from springs and seeps discharging from the aquifer. This report provides information on the evaluation of groundwater and surface-water resources in the Caddo Nation Jurisdictional Area, and in particular, information that describes the hydraulic connection between the Rush Springs aquifer and springs and streams overlying the aquifer. This report also includes data and analyses of base flow, evidence for groundwater and surface-water interactions, locations of springs and wetland areas, groundwater flows interpreted from potentiometric-surface maps, and hydrographs of water levels monitored in the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area from 2010 to 2013. Flow in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer, on average, were composed of 50 percent base flow in most years. Monthly mean base flow appeared to maintain streamflows throughout each year, but periods of zero flow were documented in daily hydrographs at each measured site, typically in the summer months. A pneumatic slug-test technique was used at 15 sites to determine the horizontal hydraulic conductivity of streambed sediments in streams overlying the Rush Springs aquifer. Converting horizontal hydraulic conductivities (Kh) from the slug-test analyses to vertical hydraulic conductivities (Kv) by using a ratio of Kv/Kh = 0.1 resulted in estimates of vertical streambed hydraulic conductivity ranging from 0.1 to 8.6 feet per day. Data obtained from a hydraulic potentiomanometer in streambed sediments and streams in August 2012 indicate that water flow was from the streambed sediments to the stream (gaining) at 6 of 15 sites, and that water flow was from the stream to the streambed sediments (losing) at 9 of 15 sites. The groundwater and surface-water interaction data collected at the Cobb Creek near Eakly, Okla., streamflow gaging station (07325800), indicate that the bedrock groundwater, alluvial groundwater, and surface-water resources are closely connected. Because of this hydrologic connection, large perennial streams in the study area may change from gaining to losing streams in the summer. The timing and severity of this change from a gaining to a losing condition probably is affected by the local or regional withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation in the summer growing season. Wells placed closer to streams have a greater and more immediate effect on alluvial groundwater levels and stream stages than wells placed farther from streams. Large-capacity irrigation wells, even those completed hundreds of feet below land surface in the bedrock aquifer, can induce surface-water flow from nearby streams by lowering alluvial groundwater levels below the stream altitude. Twenty-five new springs visible from public roads and paths were documented during a survey of springs in 2011. Most of the springs are in upland draws on the flanks of topographic ridges. Wetlands primarily were identified by using a combination of data sources including the National Wetlands Inventory, Soil Survey Geographic database frequently flooded soils maps, and aerial photographs. Regional flow directions were determined by analysis of water levels measured in 29 wells completed in the Rush 2 Springs aquifer in Caddo County and the Caddo Nation Tribal Jurisdictional Area. Water levels were monitored every 30 minutes in five wells by using a vented pressure transducer and a data-collection platform with real-time transmitting equipment in each well. Those five wells ranged in depth from 210 to 350 feet. Water levels in these five wells indicate that there was a decrease in water storage in the Rush Springs aquifer from October 2010 to June 2013.

Oklahoma↗
USGS2012

Residence time, chemical and isotopic analysis of nitrate in the groundwater and surface water of a small agricultural watershed in the Coastal Plain, Bucks Branch, Sussex County, Delaware

Nitrate is a common contaminant in groundwater and surface water throughout the Nation, and water-resource managers need more detailed small-scale watershed research to guide conservation efforts aimed at improving water quality. Concentrations of nitrate in Bucks Branch are among the highest in the state of Delaware and a scientific investigation was performed to provide water-quality information to assist with the management of agriculture and water resources. A combination of major-ion chemistry, nitrogen isotopic composition and age-dating techniques was used to estimate the residence time and provide a chemical and isotopic analysis of nitrate in the groundwater in the surficial aquifer of the Bucks Branch watershed in Sussex County, Delaware. The land use was more than 90 percent agricultural and most nitrogen inputs were from manure and fertilizer. The apparent median age of sampled groundwater is 18 years and the estimated residence time of groundwater contributing to the streamflow for the entire Bucks Branch watershed at the outlet is approximately 19 years. Concentrations of nitrate exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water standard of 10 milligrams per liter (as nitrogen) in 60 percent of groundwater samples and 42 percent of surface-water samples. The overall geochemistry in the Bucks Branch watershed indicates that agriculture is the predominant source of nitrate contamination and the observed patterns in major-ion chemistry are similar to those observed in other studies on the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain. The pattern of enrichment in nitrogen and oxygen isotopes (δ15N and δ18O) of nitrate in groundwater and surface water indicates there is some loss of nitrate through denitrification, but this process is not sufficient to remove all of the nitrate from groundwater discharging to streams, and concentrations of nitrate in streams remain elevated.

Delaware↗
USGS2005

Problems associated with estimating ground water discharge and recharge from stream-discharge records

Ground water discharge and recharge frequently have been estimated with hydrograph-separation techniques, but the critical assumptions of the techniques have not been investigated. The critical assumptions are that the hydraulic characteristics of the contributing aquifer (recession index) can be estimated from stream-discharge records; that periods of exclusively ground water discharge can be reliably identified; and that stream-discharge peaks approximate the magnitude and tinting of recharge events. The first assumption was tested by estimating the recession index from st earn-discharge hydrographs, ground water hydrographs, and hydraulic diffusivity estimates from aquifer tests in basins throughout the eastern United States and Montana. The recession index frequently could not be estimated reliably from stream-discharge records alone because many of the estimates of the recession index were greater than 1000 days. The ratio of stream discharge during baseflow periods was two to 36 times greater than the maximum expected range of ground water discharge at 12 of the 13 field sites. The identification of the ground water component of stream-discharge records was ambiguous because drainage from bank-storage, wetlands, surface water bodies, soils, and snowpacks frequently exceeded ground water discharge and also decreased exponentially during recession periods. The timing and magnitude of recharge events could not be ascertained from stream-discharge records at any of the sites investigated because recharge events were not directly correlated with stream peaks. When used alone, the recession-curve-displacement method and other hydrograph-separation techniques are poor tools for estimating ground water discharge or recharge because the major assumptions of the methods are commonly and grossly violated. Multiple, alternative methods of estimating ground water discharge and recharge should be used because of the uncertainty associated with any one technique.

Ground Water↗
USGS2013

Shallow groundwater in the Matanuska-Susitna Valley, Alaska—Conceptualization and simulation of flow

The Matanuska-Susitna Valley is in the Upper Cook Inlet Basin and is currently undergoing rapid population growth outside of municipal water and sewer service areas. In response to concerns about the effects of increasing water use on future groundwater availability, a study was initiated between the Alaska Department of Natural Resources and the U.S. Geological Survey. The goals of the study were (1) to compile existing data and collect new data to support hydrogeologic conceptualization of the study area, and (2) to develop a groundwater flow model to simulate flow dynamics important at the regional scale. The purpose of the groundwater flow model is to provide a scientific framework for analysis of regional-scale groundwater availability. To address the first study goal, subsurface lithologic data were compiled into a database and were used to construct a regional hydrogeologic framework model describing the extent and thickness of hydrogeologic units in the Matanuska-Susitna Valley. The hydrogeologic framework model synthesizes existing maps of surficial geology and conceptual geochronologies developed in the study area with the distribution of lithologies encountered in hundreds of boreholes. The geologic modeling package Geological Surveying and Investigation in Three Dimensions (GSI3D) was used to construct the hydrogeologic framework model. In addition to characterizing the hydrogeologic framework, major groundwater-budget components were quantified using several different techniques. A land-surface model known as the Deep Percolation Model was used to estimate in-place groundwater recharge across the study area. This model incorporates data on topography, soils, vegetation, and climate. Model-simulated surface runoff was consistent with observed streamflow at U.S. Geological Survey streamgages. Groundwater withdrawals were estimated on the basis of records from major water suppliers during 2004-2010. Fluxes between groundwater and surface water were estimated during field investigations on several small streams. Regional groundwater flow patterns were characterized by synthesizing previous water-table maps with a synoptic water-level measurement conducted during 2009. Time-series water-level data were collected at groundwater and lake monitoring stations over the study period (2009–present). Comparison of historical groundwater-level records with time-series groundwater-level data collected during this study showed similar patterns in groundwater-level fluctuation in response to precipitation. Groundwater-age data collected during previous studies show that water moves quickly through the groundwater system, suggesting that the system responds quickly to changes in climate forcing. Similarly, the groundwater system quickly returns to long-term average conditions following variability due to seasonal or interannual changes in precipitation. These analyses indicate that the groundwater system is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, characterized by water-level fluctuation about a constant average state, with no long-term trends in aquifer-system storage. To address the second study goal, a steady-state groundwater flow model was developed to simulate regional groundwater flow patterns. The groundwater flow model was bounded by physically meaningful hydrologic features, and appropriate internal model boundaries were specified on the basis of conceptualization of the groundwater system resulting in a three-layer model. Calibration data included 173 water‑level measurements and 18 measurements of streamflow gains and losses along small streams. Comparison of simulated and observed heads and flows showed that the model accurately simulates important regional characteristics of the groundwater flow system. This model is therefore appropriate for studying regional-scale groundwater availability. Mismatch between model-simulated and observed hydrologic quantities is likely because of the coarse grid size of the model and seasonal transient effects. Next steps towards model refinement include the development of a transient groundwater flow model that is suitable for analysis of seasonal variability in hydraulic heads and flows. In addition, several important groundwater budget components remain poorly quantified—including groundwater outflow to the Matanuska River, Little Susitna River, and Knik Arm.

Alaska↗
USGS2019

Wetland management strategy to reduce mercury export in water and bioaccumulation in fish

Wetland environments provide numerous ecosystem services but also facilitate methylmercury (MeHg) production and bioaccumulation. We developed a wetland‐management technique to reduce MeHg concentrations in wetland fish and water. We physically modified seasonal wetlands by constructing open‐ and deep‐water treatment cells at the downstream end of seasonal wetlands to promote naturally occurring MeHg‐removal processes. We assessed the effectiveness of reducing mercury (Hg) concentrations in surface water and western mosquitofish that were caged at specific locations within 4 control and 4 treatment wetlands. Methylmercury concentrations in wetland water were successfully decreased within treatment cells during only the third year of study; however, treatment cells were not effective for reducing total Hg concentrations. Furthermore, treatment cells were not effective for reducing total Hg concentrations in wetland fish. Mercury concentrations in fish were not correlated with total Hg concentrations in filtered, particulate, or whole water; and the slope of the correlation with water MeHg concentrations differed between months. Fish total Hg concentrations were weakly correlated with water MeHg concentrations in April when fish were introduced into cages but were not correlated in May when fish were retrieved from cages. Fish total Hg concentrations were greater in treatment wetlands than in control wetlands the year after the treatment wetlands’ construction but declined by the second year. During the third year, fish total Hg concentrations increased in both control and treatment wetlands after an unexpected regional flooding event. Overall, we found limited support for the use of open‐ and deep‐water treatment cells at the downstream end of wetlands to reduce MeHg concentrations in water but not fish. We suggest that additional evaluation over a longer period of time is necessary.

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry↗
USGS2005

Characterization and identification of Na-Cl sources in ground water

Elevated concentrations of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl -) in surface and ground water are common in the United States and other countries, and can serve as indicators of, or may constitute, a water quality problem. We have characterized the most prevalent natural and anthropogenic sources of Na+ and Cl- in ground water, primarily in Illinois, and explored techniques that could be used to identify their source. We considered seven potential sources that included agricultural chemicals, septic effluent, animal waste, municipal landfill leachate, sea water, basin brines, and road deicers. The halides Cl-, bromide (Br-), and iodide (I-) were useful indicators of the sources of Na+-Cl- contamination. Iodide enrichment (relative to Cl-) was greatest in precipitation, followed by uncontaminated soil water and ground water, and landfill leachate. The mass ratios of the halides among themselves, with total nitrogen (N), and with Na+ provided diagnostic methods for graphically distinguishing among sources of Na+ and Cl- in contaminated water. Cl/Br ratios relative to Cl- revealed a clear, although overlapping, separation of sample groups. Samples of landfill leachate and ground water known to be contaminated by leachate were enriched in I- and Br-; this provided an excellent fingerprint for identifying leachate contamination. In addition, total N, when plotted against Cl/Br ratios, successfully separated water contaminated by road salt from water contaminated by other sources. Copyright ?? 2005 National Ground Water Association.

Ground Water↗