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USGS1998

Causes of sinks near Tucson, Arizona, USA

Land subsidence in the form of sinks has occurred on and near farmlands near Tucson, Pima County, Arizona, USA. The sinks occur in alluvial deposits along the flood plain of the Santa Cruz River, and have made farmlands dangerous and unsuitable for farming. More than 1700 sinks are confined to the flood plain of the Santa Cruz River and are grouped along two north-northwestward-trending bands that are approximately parallel to the river and other flood-plain drainages. An estimated 17,000 m 3 of sediment have been removed in the formation of the sinks. Thirteen trenches were dug to depths of 4–6 m to characterize near-surface sediments in sink and nonsink areas. Sediments below about 2 m included a large percentage of dispersive clays in sink areas. Sediments in nonsink areas contain a large component of medium- to coarse-grained, moderately to well sorted sand that probably fills a paleochannel. Electromagnetic surveys support the association of silts and clays in sink areas that are highly electrically conductive relative to sand in nonsink areas. Sinks probably are caused by the near-surface process of subsurface erosion of dispersive sediments along pre-existing cracks in predominantly silt and clay sediments. The pre-existing cracks probably result from desiccation or tension that developed during periods of water-table decline and channel incision during the past 100 years or in earlier periods.

Hydrogeology Journal↗

USGS2014

Simulating soil-water movement through loess-veneered landscapes using nonconsilient saturated hydraulic conductivity measurements

Soil Survey Geographic Database (SSURGO) data are available for the entire United States, so are incorporated in many regional and national models of hydrology and environmental management. However, SSURGO does not provide an understanding of spatial variability and only includes saturated hydraulic conductivity ( K sat ) values estimated from particle size analysis (PSA). This study showed model sensitivity to the substitution of SSURGO data with locally described soil properties or alternate methods of measuring K sat . Incorporation of these different soil data sets significantly changed the results of hydrologic modeling as a consequence of the amount of space available to store soil water and how this soil water is moved downslope. Locally described soil profiles indicated a difference in K sat when measured in the field vs. being estimated from PSA. This, in turn, caused a difference in which soil layers were incorporated in the hydrologic simulations using TOPMODEL, ultimately affecting how soil water storage was simulated. Simulations of free-flowing soil water, the amount of water traveling through pores too large to retain water against gravity, were compared with field observations of water in wells at five slope positions along a catena. Comparison of the simulated data with the observed data showed that the ability to model the range of conditions observed in the field varied as a function of three soil data sets (SSURGO and local field descriptions using PSA-derived K sat or field-measured K sat ) and that comparison of absolute values of soil water storage are not valid if different characterizations of soil properties are used.

Soil Science Society of America Journal↗

USGS2022

Evaluation of electrical and electromagnetic geophysical techniques to inspect earthen dam and levee structures in Arkansas

Within the state of Arkansas there is an increasing number of aging dams and levees that have little to no documentation concerning their construction or composition. Surface geophysical surveys offer a non-intrusive method for investigating these structures: To describe their lithologic makeup, to evaluate the materials that they were constructed upon, and to identify potential flow paths through them. Techniques such as electrical resistivity tomography, seismic refraction, and electromagnetic induction have all been used to image dams and levees and require additional information from geologic outcrops, geotechnical borings, or drill cores in order to make informed geologic interpretations of the geophysical models. These geologic models then allow the owners of these structures to make more informed decisions about their operation and maintenance. Between 2011 and 2018, the U.S. Geological Survey conducted geophysical and geotechnical investigations of three earthen structures within the state of Arkansas. Electrical and electromagnetic geophysical data were used to develop lithologic models of these structures and the underlying geology. Self-potential surveys were utilized to detect the movement of water through these structures indicating possible seepage pathways. Geotechnical methods such as electric and hydraulic direct-push well logs and cores acted as both a control on the geophysical interpretations and a confirmation of anomalies. This integrated approach detected the lack of an impermeable core within a levee, imaged a change in lithology of the bedrock forming the seal beneath a gravity dam, and identified a potential seepage feature within the core of an earthen dam. These results further support that this method of extending known lithologic features via surface and borehole geophysics is a useful approach for characterizing earthen water control structures.

Arkansas↗

USGS1990

Theory and application of an approximate model of saltwater upconing in aquifers

Motion and mixing of salt water and fresh water are vitally important for water-resource development throughout the world. An approximate model of saltwater upconing in aquifers is developed, which results in three non-linear coupled equations for the freshwater zone, the saltwater zone, and the transition zone. The description of the transition zone uses the concept of a boundary layer. This model invokes some assumptions to give a reasonably tractable model, considerably better than the sharp interface approximation but considerably simpler than a fully three-dimensional model with variable density. We assume the validity of the Dupuit-Forchheimer approximation of horizontal flow in each layer. Vertical hydrodynamic dispersion into the base of the transition zone is assumed and concentration of the saltwater zone is assumed constant. Solute in the transition zone is assumed to be moved by advection only. Velocity and concentration are allowed to vary vertically in the transition zone by using shape functions. Several numerical techniques can be used to solve the model equations, and simple analytical solutions can be useful in validating the numerical solution procedures. We find that the model equations can be solved with adequate accuracy using the procedures presented. The approximate model is applied to the Smoky Hill River valley in central Kansas. This model can reproduce earlier sharp interface results as well as evaluate the importance of hydrodynamic dispersion for feeding salt water to the river. We use a wide range of dispersivity values and find that unstable upconing always occurs. Therefore, in this case, hydrodynamic dispersion is not the only mechanism feeding salt water to the river. Calculations imply that unstable upconing and hydrodynamic dispersion could be equally important in transporting salt water. For example, if groundwater flux to the Smoky Hill River were only about 40% of its expected value, stable upconing could exist where hydrodynamic dispersion into a transition zone is the primary mechanism for moving salt water to the river. The current model could be useful in situations involving dense saltwater layers.

Journal of Hydrology↗

USGS2004

Water table fluctuations near an incised stream, Walnut Creek, Iowa

Incised channels are common features in many agricultural watersheds, but the effects of channel incision on riparian water table conditions have been poorly documented. In this study, we evaluate the water table fluctuations in the floodplain near an incised stream (Walnut Creek, Iowa) and investigate the roles that channel incision and variable recharge play in modifying the water table configuration in the floodplain. Groundwater flows from higher landscape positions towards Walnut Creek under hydraulic gradients that were steepest near the upland/floodplain contact and in the near-stream riparian zone. Annually, water table fluctuations on the floodplain were greatest in wells located 30 m from the creek, midway between the creek and upland. Water levels monitored continuously during a runoff event indicated that bank storage was confined to a narrow zone adjacent to the channel. A steady-state, one-dimensional analytical model was developed to describe the shape of the water table surface near an incised stream and evaluate how variable groundwater recharge and channel bed lowering has affected the shape of the water table surface. Results from this study have implications for managing the riparian buffers of incised streams with successful establishment dependent upon matching buffer vegetation to riparian water table conditions. ?? 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Journal of Hydrology↗

USGS2015

Monitoring and modeling wetland chloride concentrations in relationship to oil and gas development

Extraction of oil and gas via unconventional methods is becoming an important aspect of energy production worldwide. Studying the effects of this development in countries where these technologies are being widely used may provide other countries, where development may be proposed, with some insight in terms of concerns associated with development. A fairly recent expansion of unconventional oil and gas development in North America provides such an opportunity. Rapid increases in energy development in North America have caught the attention of managers and scientists as a potential stressor for wildlife and their habitats. Of particular concern in the Northern Great Plains of the U.S. is the potential for chloride-rich produced water associated with unconventional oil and gas development to alter the water chemistry of wetlands. We describe a landscape scale modeling approach designed to examine the relationship between potential chloride contamination in wetlands and patterns of oil and gas development. We used a spatial Bayesian hierarchical modeling approach to assess multiple models explaining chloride concentrations in wetlands. These models included effects related to oil and gas wells (e.g. age of wells, number of wells) and surficial geology (e.g. glacial till, outwash). We found that the model containing the number of wells and the surficial geology surrounding a wetland best explained variation in chloride concentrations. Our spatial predictions showed regions of localized high chloride concentrations. Given the spatiotemporal variability of regional wetland water chemistry, we do not regard our results as predictions of contamination, but rather as a way to identify locations that may require more intensive sampling or further investigation. We suggest that an approach like the one outlined here could easily be extended to more of an adaptive monitoring approach to answer questions about chloride contamination risk that are of interest to managers.

Montana, North Dakota↗

USGS2007

Use of a watershed model to characterize the fate and transport of fluometuron, a soil-applied cotton herbicide, in surface water

The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to characterize the fate and transport of fluometuron (a herbicide used on cotton) in the Bogue Phalia Basin in northwestern Mississippi, USA. SWAT is a basin-scale watershed model, able to simulate hydrological, chemical, and sediment transport processes. After adjustments to a few parameters (specifically the SURLAG variable, the runoff curve number, Manning's N for overland flow, soil available water capacity, and the base-flow alpha factor) the SWAT model fit the observed streamflow well (the Coefficient of Efficiency and R2 were greater than 60). The results from comparing observed fluometuron concentrations with simulated concentrations were reasonable. The simulated concentrations (which were daily averages) followed the pattern of observed concentrations (instantaneous values) closely, but could be off in magnitude at times. Further calibration might have improved the fit, but given the uncertainties in the input data, it was not clear that any improvement would be due to a better understanding of the input variables. ?? 2007 Taylor & Francis.

International Journal of Environmental Analytical ↗

USGS2015

Hydroecological condition and potential for aquaculture in lakes of the arid region of Khorezm, Uzbekistan

With >400 small (<1 ha) lakes, the arid Khorezm Province in Uzbekistan may be well-suited for aquaculture production. Developing water resources to provide a local food supply could increase fish consumption while improving the rural economy. Hydroecological (biological and physical) and chemical characteristics (including legacy pesticides ΣDDT and ΣHCH) of four representative drainage lakes in Khorezm from 2006 to 2008 were analyzed for the lakes’ capability to support healthy fish populations. Lake characteristics were categorized as “optimal” (having little or no effect on growth and development), “tolerable” (corresponding to chronic or sub-lethal toxicity) and “lethal” (corresponding to acute toxicity). Results indicate that three lakes are likely well-suited for raising fish species, with water quality meeting World Bank aquaculture guidelines. However, the fourth lake often had salinity concentrations > optimal levels for local fish species. Pesticide concentrations in water of all four lakes were within tolerable aquaculture ranges. Although water ΣDDT concentrations were >optimal limits, results from chemical analysis of fish tissues and semi-permeable membrane devices indicated that study lake ΣDDT concentrations were not accumulating in fish or posing a human health threat. Land and water management to maintain adequate lake water quality are imperative for sustaining fish populations for human consumption.

Khorezm↗

USGS2016

The chemistry and isotopic composition of waters in the low-enthalpy geothermal system of Cimino-Vico Volcanic District, Italy

Geothermal energy exploration is based in part on interpretation of the chemistry, temperature, and discharge rate of thermal springs. Here we present the major element chemistry and the δD, δ 18 O, 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and δ 11 B isotopic ratio of groundwater from the low-enthalpy geothermal system near the city of Viterbo in the Cimino-Vico volcanic district of west-Central Italy. The geothermal system hosts many thermal springs and gas vents, but the resource is still unexploited. Water chemistry is controlled by mixing between low salinity,HCO 3 -rich fresh waters (<24.2°C) flowing in shallow volcanic rocks and SO 4 -rich thermal waters (25.3°C to 62.2°C) ascending from deep, high permeability Mesozoic limestones. The (equivalent) SO 4 /Cl (0.01–0.02), Na/Cl (2.82–5.83) and B/Cl ratios (0.02–0.38) of thermal waters differs from the ratios in other geothermal systems from Central Italy, probably implying a lack of hydraulic continuity across the region. The δ 18 O (−6.6‰ to −5.9‰) and δD (−40.60‰ to −36.30‰) isotopic composition of spring water suggest that the recharge area for the geothermal system is the summit region of Mount Cimino. The strontium isotope ratios ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) of thermal waters (0.70797–0.70805) are consistent with dissolution of the Mesozoic evaporite-carbonate units that constitute the reservoir, and the ratios of cold fresh waters mainly reflect shallow circulation through the volcanic cover and some minor admixture (<10%) of thermal water as well. The boron isotopic composition (δ 11 B) of fresh waters (−5.00 and 6.12‰) is similar to that of the volcanic cover, but the δ 11 B of thermal waters (−8.37‰ to −4.12‰) is a mismatch for the Mesozoic reservoir rocks and instead reflects dissolution of secondary boron minerals during fluid ascent through flysch units that overlie the reservoir. A slow and tortuous ascent enhances extraction of boron but also promotes conductive cooling, partially masking the heat present in the reservoir. Overall data from this study is consistent with previous studies that concluded that the geothermal system has a large energy potential.

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research↗

USGS1974

Stable isotope and lead isotope study of the Cortez, Nevada, gold deposit and surrounding area

Isotope studies of sulfur, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and lead were carried out to clarify the age and origin of the Cortex gold deposit and the surrounding mineralized area. The hydrogen isotope data indicate that meteoric water was the dominant component of the ore-forming fluids at Cortez. The hydrogen isotope data support geologic evidence for a Tertiary age for the deposit. The oxidation of the ore probably occurred during the deposition of postore calcite and was caused by waters whose oxygen isotopic composition was distinctly different from that of the ore fluids. The carbon isotope data suggest that the only carbon present in the ore fluids was derived from solution of the host rock. The lead and sulfur data are consistent with a possible sedimentary derivation for the gold in the ore. Lead and sulfur isotope distributions indicate that much of the galena mineralization in the area occurred during the Jurassic.

Nevada↗

USGS2016

Comparison of geochemical data obtained using four brine sampling methods at the SECARB Phase III Anthropogenic Test CO2 injection site, Citronelle Oil Field, Alabama

The chemical composition of formation water and associated gases from the lower Cretaceous Paluxy Formation was determined using four different sampling methods at a characterization well in the Citronelle Oil Field, Alabama, as part of the Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SECARB) Phase III Anthropogenic Test, which is an integrated carbon capture and storage project. In this study, formation water and gas samples were obtained from well D-9-8 #2 at Citronelle using gas lift, electric submersible pump, U-tube, and a downhole vacuum sampler (VS) and subjected to both field and laboratory analyses. Field chemical analyses included electrical conductivity, dissolved sulfide concentration, alkalinity, and pH; laboratory analyses included major, minor and trace elements, dissolved carbon, volatile fatty acids, free and dissolved gas species. The formation water obtained from this well is a Na–Ca–Cl-type brine with a salinity of about 200,000 mg/L total dissolved solids. Differences were evident between sampling methodologies, particularly in pH, Fe and alkalinity. There was little gas in samples, and gas composition results were strongly influenced by sampling methods. The results of the comparison demonstrate the difficulty and importance of preserving volatile analytes in samples, with the VS and U-tube system performing most favorably in this aspect.

International Journal of Coal Geology↗

USGS2012

Recent movement on the Garlock Fault as suggested by water level fluctuations in a well in Fremont Valley, California

Water levels have been continuously recorded since March 1978 in a well in Fremont Valley, where several strands of the adjacent Garlock fault zone have exhibited both left-lateral displacement and components of normal displacement. Differences in water levels indicate that a fault segment lies between the observation well and a nearby irrigation well. During the 4-year recording period, six sharp fluctuations, or “spikes,” were noted. These fluctuations, occurring over 2- to 4-day periods, have amplitudes of 15–30 cm. They appear to be the result of creep events on a nearby fault. Two types of creep events are plausible: (1) normal slip on an en echelon trace of the Garlock fault less than 300 m south of the well, with the north side up relative to Fremont Valley or (2) left-lateral slip on the same fault. Because of the nature of the fluctuations we favor the latter interpretation. Dislocation models utilizing exponential, arc tangent, and skewed cosine functions were used to analyze the water level fluctuations, associated pressure distribution, and fault displacements. The results suggest that creep on the fault ranges from several millimeters to a centimeter for individual events. Estimates of cumulative creep for the period 1978–1982 range from 20 to 50 mm, depending on the particular model employed.

Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth↗

USGS2006

Phase equilibria constraints on the chemical and physical evolution of the campanian ignimbrite

The Campanian Ignimbrite is a > 200 km3 trachyte-phonolite pyroclastic deposit that erupted at 39.3 ?? 0.1 ka within the Campi Flegrei west of Naples, Italy. Here we test the hypothesis that Campanian Ignimbrite magma was derived by isobaric crystal fractionation of a parental basaltic trachyandesitic melt that reacted and came into local equilibrium with small amounts (5-10 wt%) of crustal rock (skarns and foid-syenites) during crystallization. Comparison of observed crystal and magma compositions with results of phase equilibria assimilation-fractionation simulations (MELTS) is generally very good. Oxygen fugacity was approximately buffered along QFM+1 (where QFM is the quartz-fayalite-magnetite buffer) during isobaric fractionation at 0.15 GPa (???6 km depth). The parental melt, reconstructed from melt inclusion and host clinopyroxene compositions, is found to be basaltic trachyandesite liquid (51.1 wt% SiO2, 9.3 wt% MgO, 3 wt% H2O). A significant feature of phase equilibria simulations is the existence of a pseudo-invariant temperature, ???883??C, at which the fraction of melt remaining in the system decreases abruptly from ???0.5 to < 0.1. Crystallization at the pseudo-invariant point leads to abrupt changes in the composition, properties (density, dissolved water content), and physical state (viscosity, volume fraction fluid) of melt and magma. A dramatic decrease in melt viscosity (from 1700 Pa s to ???200 Pa s), coupled with a change in the volume fraction of water in magma (from ??? 0.1 to 0.8) and a dramatic decrease in melt and magma density acted as a destabilizing eruption trigger. Thermal models suggest a timescale of ??? 200 kyr from the beginning of fractionation until eruption, leading to an apparent rate of evolved magma generation of about 10-3 km3/year. In situ crystallization and crystal settling in density-stratified regions, as well as in convectively mixed, less evolved subjacent magma, operate rapidly enough to match this apparent volumetric rate of evolved magma production. ?? Copyright 2007 Oxford University Press.

Journal of Petrology↗

USGS2012

Effects of geothermal development on deformation in the Long Valley Caldera, eastern California, 1985-1994

Long Valley caldera in east central California has been the site of crustal unrest in the form of seismicity and ground deformation in response to magmatic inflation since 1980. Uplift of the resurgent dome has totaled ∼0.6 m over the 1975–1992 period. Within this region of uplift, and near the southwestern edge of the resurgent dome, is the Casa Diablo area, which experienced relative subsidence of 0.17 m between 1985 and 1992. Geothermal fluid production began at Casa Diablo in 1985 to supply a binary electric power plant; currently, three such plants generate a total of about 40 MW of electricity. The plants are supplied by 170°C water pumped from depths near 150m; all the produced water is reinjected at cooler temperatures at depths near 600 m. Analyses of data from (1) regional leveling lines and a network of bench marks in the geothermal well field area, (2) tilt observations from an L‐shaped array of bench marks, and (3) calculations relating pressure and temperature changes to subsidence indicate that relative subsidence at Casa Diablo results mainly from reductions in pressure in the shallow production reservoir and overlying formations and reductions in temperature in the underlying injection reservoir. Secondary effects on deformation are caused by offsets along the Taylor‐Bryant fault bounding the west side of the well field.

California↗

USGS2012

Monitoring glacier surface seismicity in time and space using Rayleigh waves

Sliding glaciers and brittle ice failure generate seismic body and surface wave energy characteristic to the source mechanism. Here we analyze continuous seismic recordings from an array of nine short-period passive seismometers located on Bench Glacier, Alaska (USA) (61.033°N, 145.687°W). We focus on the arrival-time and amplitude information of the dominant Rayleigh wave phase. Over a 46-hour period we detect thousands of events using a cross-correlation based event identification method. Travel-time inversion of a subset of events (7% of the total) defines an active crevasse, propagating more than 200 meters in three hours. From the Rayleigh wave amplitudes, we estimate the amount of volumetric opening along the crevasse as well as an average bulk attenuation ( = 42) for the ice in this part of the glacier. With the remaining icequake signals we establish a diurnal periodicity in seismicity, indicating that surface run-off and subglacial water pressure changes likely control the triggering of these surface events. Furthermore, we find that these events are too weak (i.e., too noisy) to locate individually. However, stacking individual events increases the signal-to-noise ratio of the waveforms, implying that these periodic sources are effectively stationary during the recording period.

Journal of Geophysical Research F: Earth Surface↗

USGS1976

Amino acids and gases in some springs and an oil field in California

Samples of water and gas were collected from six springs and two wells in the Upper Cretaceous Great Valley sequence and Franciscan Formation underlying the Coast Range of northern California and from four oil wells penetrating Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the Kettleman North Dome oil field. Comparison of the dissolved free amino acid compositions of the waters from the two locations show overlapping ranges with many more similarities than differences. The detection of nonprotein amino acids (sarcosine, β -amino n -butyric acid, and others) indicates the protein degradation is partly chemical rather than strictly biological. Other low molecular weight degradation products (methane, ethane, nonvolatile organic acids, and other organic chelating agents) were found. This may be one mechanism for the transportation of organic matter from the source rocks to the reservoir rocks of an oil deposit.

California↗

USGS1976

Solute transport and modeling of water quality in a small stream

An injection of chloride, sodium, and stable strontium was made at a constant rate for 3 hours into Uvas Creek, Santa Clara County, Calif., to determine the mass transport processes in a small stream. Five observation points were selected within a 610-metre reach of the stream below the injection site. Water samples were collected at the observation points during and immediately after the injection. A mathematical model of the stream was obtained by solving analytically and optimally the one-dimensional mass transport equation of the solutes in the stream. Comparison of field results with a simplified mathematical model indicates the dominance of convection in the behavior of sodium and chloride. The concentration of chloride and sodium can be closely simulated by the model. However, strontium cannot be well represented by the simplified model, which contains a first-order decay-type sink.

California↗

USGS2013

Quantifying wetland–aquifer interactions in a humid subtropical climate region: An integrated approach

Wetlands are widely recognized as sentinels of global climate change. Long-term monitoring data combined with process-based modeling has the potential to shed light on key processes and how they change over time. This paper reports the development and application of a simple water balance model based on long-term climate, soil, vegetation and hydrological dynamics to quantify groundwater–surface water (GW–SW) interactions at the Norman landfill research site in Oklahoma, USA. Our integrated approach involved model evaluation by means of the following independent measurements: (a) groundwater inflow calculation using stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen ( 16 O, 18 O, 1 H, 2 H); (b) seepage flux measurements in the wetland hyporheic sediment; and (c) pan evaporation measurements on land and in the wetland. The integrated approach was useful for identifying the dominant hydrological processes at the site, including recharge and subsurface flows. Simulated recharge compared well with estimates obtained using isotope methods from previous studies and allowed us to identify specific annual signatures of this important process during the period of study (1997–2007). Similarly, observations of groundwater inflow and outflow rates to and from the wetland using seepage meters and isotope methods were found to be in good agreement with simulation results. Results indicate that subsurface flow components in the system are seasonal and readily respond to rainfall events. The wetland water balance is dominated by local groundwater inputs and regional groundwater flow contributes little to the overall water balance.

Oklahoma↗