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At least 289 records · Page 16Linked to original sources
USGS1992

Yellowstone grizzly bear mortality, human habituation, and whitebark pine seed crops

The Yellowstone grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) population may be extirpated during the next 100-200 years unless mortality rates stabilize and remain at acceptable low levels. Consequently, we analyzed relationships between Yellowstone grizzly bear mortality and frequency of human habituation among bears and size of the whitebark pine ( Pinus albicaulis ) seed crop. During years of large seed crops, bears used areas within 5 km of roads and 8 km of developments half as intensively as during years of small seed crops because whitebark pine's high elevation distribution is typically remote from human facilities. On average, management trappings of bears were 6.2 times higher, mortality of adult females 2.3 times higher, and mortality of subadult males 3.3 times higher during years of small seed crops. We hypothesize that high mortality of adult females and subadult males during small seed crop years was a consequence of their tendency to range closest (of all sex-age cohorts) to human facilities; they also had a higher frequency of human habituation compared with adult males. We also hypothesize that low morality among subadult females during small seed crop years was a result of fewer energetic stressors compared with adult females and greater familiarity with their range compared with subadult males; mortality was low even though they ranged close to humans and exhibited a high frequency of human habituation. Human-habituated and food-conditioned bears were 2.9 times as likely to range within 4 km of developments and 3.1 times as often killed by humans compared with nonhabituated bears. We argue that destruction of habituated bears that use native foods near humans results in a decline in the overall ability of bears to use available habitat; and that the number and extent of human facilities in occupied grizzly bear habitat needs to be minimized unless habituated bears are preserved and successful ways to manage the associated risks to humans are developed.

Idaho, Montana, Wyoming↗
USGS2011

Developing user-friendly habitat suitability tools from regional stream fish survey data

We developed user-friendly fish habitat suitability tools (plots) for fishery managers in Michigan; these tools are based on driving habitat variables and fish population estimates for several hundred stream sites throughout the state. We generated contour plots to show patterns in fish biomass for over 60 common species (and for 120 species grouped at the family level) in relation to axes of catchment area and low-flow yield (90% exceedance flow divided by catchment area) and also in relation to axes of mean and weekly range of July temperatures. The plots showed distinct patterns in fish habitat suitability at each level of biological organization studied and were useful for quantitatively comparing river sites. We demonstrate how these plots can be used to support stream management, and we provide examples pertaining to resource assessment, trout stocking, angling regulations, chemical reclamation of marginal trout streams, indicator species, instream flow protection, and habitat restoration. These straightforward and effective tools are electronically available so that managers can easily access and incorporate them into decision protocols and presentations.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2019

Evaluation of a field protocol for internally-tagging fish predators using difficult-to-tag ictalurid catfish as examples

Tagging protocols that result in high tag retention will benefit fisheries professionals who use telemetry data. Ictalurid catfish historically have had very poor telemetry tag retention. Here, we use these difficult-to-tag taxa to address two research objectives. First, we evaluated our field-based internal tagging methodology by quantifying six tag retention metrics using data from 48 acoustically-tagged blue catfish ( Ictalurus furcatus ) released into Milford Reservoir, KS, USA. Second, to better understand the results of this field evaluation, we evaluated tag retention and survival in the hatchery for the closely-related channel catfish ( I. punctatus ). Field and hatchery studies provided complementary information. Eighty percent of tagged blue catfish were detected at the end of our 5-mo field study (1,139,402 = total detections; 24,243 = average detections per fish). A 13-week hatchery evaluation of our field methodology also had high tag retention (100%). Hatchery treatments that used a lateral-ventral incision had higher tag retention and survival than those treatments that included a mid-ventral incision. Time invested in training, protocol refinement, and field organization were also important. Furthermore, monitoring the surgical history and recovery of individual fish allowed us to correct problems before mortality occurred. Because a need exists for a range of internal tagging methodologies that are effective on an assortment of fish species tagged under a variety of circumstances, our high tag retention methodology may be useful to the expanding research community that studies native and non-native catfish, as well as, other telemetry researchers who seek beneficial refinements to their tagging protocols.

Kansas↗
USGS1989

Downstream migration of recently metamorphosed sea lampreys in the Ocqueoc River, Michigan, before and after treatment with lampricides

The objectives of this study were to determine the effectiveness ofchemical treatments of the Ocqueoc River, Michigan, in reducing the number of recently metamorphosed sea lampreys Petromyzon marinus migrating to Lake Huron and to estimate total numbers of migrants produced before and after treatment. Sea lampreys were captured during their downstream migration in a single fyke net fished in the same location from September 1963 through August 1975. The catch, which averaged 3,474 sea lampreys (range, 3,248-3,913) during four migration periods (September-June) before treatment in 1968, declined to 4 during the 1974-1975 migration period. Markrecapture studies were conducted to determine the capture efficiency of the net for recently metamorphosed sea lampreys and to estimate the total downstream migration for each migration period. Estimated downstream migrations before treatment averaged 62,036 sea lampreys (range, 58,000-69,875) for four migration periods and declined to 71 during the 1974-1975 migration period. Catches were usually greater in fall than in spring. The fall peak in migratory activity was in November or December, and the spring peak was in April; both peaks occurred while water levels were high and water temperatures were near 5°C.

Michigan↗
USGS1998

Seasonal migration and homing of channel catfish in the lower Wisconsin River, Wisconsin

A multiyear tag and recapture study was conducted to determine whether channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus were migratory and if they had strong homing tendencies. Over 10,000 channel catfish were tagged from the lower Wisconsin River and adjacent waters of the upper Mississippi River during the 3-year sampling period. Data on movements were obtained from study recaptures and through tag returns and harvest information provided by sport anglers and commercial fishers. Channel catfish occupied relatively small home ranges during summer, migrated downstream to the upper Mississippi River in autumn, then migrated back up the Wisconsin River in spring to spawn and to occupy the same summer home sites they had used in previous summers. Fish size was a factor in the degree of fidelity to summer home sites, with larger fish showing greater fidelity.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS2021

Factors influencing the post-release movements of translocated fishers: Implications for translocation success

Long distance, post-release movements of translocated wildlife can be a key factor limiting translocation success. Yet, for many species, we have little or no understanding of factors that influence post-release movements. Translocations have been important for recovering fisher Pekania pennanti populations across the southern portion of their North American range. However, little is known about the post-release movements of translocated fishers and how these movements may be influenced by demographic or translocation-process factors. To restore fishers in Washington State, we moved 90 fishers from central British Columbia and released them at nine sites in the Olympic Fisher Recovery Area on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington from 2008 to 2010. We evaluated post-release movements of 48 fishers to determine both the distance and duration of movements prior to home range establishment. Fishers moved extensively following their release. Multi-model selection indicated a high level of support for the hypothesis that post-release movements differed by fisher sex and age; whereas, year of release had no apparent effect on movements, and release date had only a marginal influence on male movements. Mean distance (± 95% CI) from a release site to a home range was greater for adult males (62.0 ± 19.6 km) than for juvenile males (31.4 ± 16.0 km), adult females (30.9 ± 21.1 km), and juvenile females (29.0 ± 13.5 km). Mean number of days from release until home range establishment was similar for the sexes, however the variance in movement duration was greater for females. Twenty-six of 27 females established home ranges over an 11-month period (December-October), while 19 of 21 males did so within a 4-month period (April-July). Mean home range sizes differed between males (128.3 ± 21.1 km2) and females (63.5 ± 9.0 km2) and were among the largest reported for the species. A greater proportion of females (18 of 27; 67%) than males (8 of 21; 38%) established home ranges within or partially within the recovery area. Six females left a previously established home range during the breeding season, presumably to find breeding males. Given the large distances that fishers can move following release, translocation success could be furthered by releasing individuals at fewer sites in the interior of large reintroduction areas to facilitate greater exposure to a recovery area and greater opportunity to interact with conspecifics and potential mates.

Washington↗
USGS2020

Use of museum specimens to refine historical pronghorn subspecies boundaries

Endangered Sonoran ( Antilocapra americana sonoriensis ) and Peninsular ( A. a. peninsularis ) pronghorn persist largely because of captive breeding and reintroduction efforts. Recovery team managers want to re-establish pronghorn in their native range, but there is currently uncertainty regarding the subspecies status of extinct pronghorn populations that historically inhabited southern California, USA, and northern Baja California, Mexico. To address this uncertainty, we genotyped museum specimens and conducted phylogenetic and population genetic analyses of historical data in the context of 3 contemporary pronghorn populations. The historical northern Baja California pronghorn share the most ancestry with contemporary Peninsular pronghorn, whereas pronghorn in southern California share more ancestry with contemporary American ( A. a. americana ) pronghorn. For reintroductions into northern Baja California, the Peninsular subspecies is more appropriate based on museum genetic data. For reintroductions into Southern California, ecological and genetic factors are both important, as the subspecies most genetically related to historical populations (American) may not be well-adapted to the hot, low-elevation deserts of the reintroduction area. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

California↗
USGS2017

Duckling survival of mallards in Southland, New Zealand

The southern portion of New Zealand's South Island is a productive area for mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ) despite a notable lack of permanent or semi-permanent wetlands. Most broods are reared in pastures that may or may not be flooded with ephemeral water. In recent years, there has been an increased conversion from continuous to sporadic grazing that has resulted in a functional change in the emergent and upland vegetation available for broods. In 2014, we investigated mallard duckling survival on different pastures relative to a suite of characteristics pertaining to the adult female, clutch, brood, weather, and habitat. We monitored 438 ducklings from 50 radio-marked females to 30 days post-hatch. Duckling survival was unaffected by pasture type but increased with duckling age, the presence of ephemeral water, and with greater distance from the nearest anthropogenic structure. Survival was lower for broods of second year (SY) females than for broods of after-second year (ASY) females, in areas with more dense cover, and when ducklings moved, on average, greater daily distances. Cumulative 30-day duckling survival ranged from 0.11 for ducklings of SY females without ephemeral water present to 0.46 for ducklings of ASY females with ephemeral water present. Therefore, increasing available seasonal water sources may increase duckling survival. Further, narrow, linear patches of dense cover present in our study could support a greater abundance of predators or increase their foraging efficiency. As such, managers could consider increasing patch sizes of dense cover to reduce predator efficiency, and employing predator removal in these areas to improve duckling survival.

Southland↗
USGS2024

Influence of stream temperature and human disturbance on prespawn mortality of Chinook Salmon in the Willamette River basin

Objective Premature mortality of adult female Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha is a major barrier to population recovery. The Willamette River basin, Oregon, typifies the problems that are faced by fishery managers in the Pacific Northwest (USA). Adult salmon are trapped and transported upstream of dams to access historical spawning grounds, but annual rates of prespawn mortality (PSM) are high (often >40%) and may limit the recovery of natural populations. The purpose of this study was to identify potential factors related to PSM of female Chinook Salmon that are outplanted above dams and incorporate them into a modeling framework to facilitate adaptive management of outplanting operations. Methods We evaluated PSM in Fall Creek of the Willamette River basin prior to transport facility improvements in summer and fall of 2010–2017 and postimprovement during 2020–2021. We estimated PSM and conducted exploratory analyses to identify possible nontransport sources of stress that may contribute to the observed high PSM rates. Candidate factors included long‐term elevated temperature exposure, elevated temperature exposure below the trap, total number of outplanted fish, and monthly human disturbance of outplanted fish. We then developed and fit three models, each representing a hypothesis of a factor influencing PSM, incorporated them into a single alternative decision model, and conducted sensitivity analyses. Result Prespawn mortality averaged 0.66 (ranging from 0.37 to 0.94) over the study period. According to the simulation results, the top two management actions were to exclude human activities—swimming and fishing—from Fall Creek in July and August. Conclusion Expected PSM rates were predicted to be 0.38 when human activity was excluded in July and 0.37 for August. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the most influential decision model component was the choice of the alternative model.

Oregon↗
USGS2012

Autumn migration of of Mississippi Flyway mallards as determined by satellite telemetry

We used satellite telemetry to study autumn migration timing, routes, stopover duration, and final destinations of mallards Anas platyrhynchos captured the previous spring in Arkansas from 2004 to 2007. Of those mallards that still had functioning transmitters on September 15 ( n = 55), the average date when autumn migration began was October 23 (SE = 2.62 d; range = September 17–December 7). For those mallards that stopped for >1 d during migration, the average stopover length was 15.4 d (SE = 1.47 d). Ten mallards migrated nonstop to wintering sites. The eastern Dakotas were a heavily utilized stopover area. The total distance migrated per mallard averaged 1,407 km (SE = 89.55 km; range = 142–2,947 km). The average time spent on migration per individual between September 15 and December 15 was 27 d (SE = 2.88 d; range = 2–84 d). The state where most mallards were located on December 15 was Missouri (11) followed by Arkansas (8), while 5 mallards were still in Canada, and only 8 of 43 females and 0 of 10 males were present in Arkansas. The eastern Dakotas are a heavily utilized migration stopover for midcontinent mallards that may require more attention for migration habitat management. The reasons for so few mallards, especially male mallards, returning to Arkansas the following year deserves further research. .

Arkansas↗
USGS2019

A statewide evaluation of Florida Bass genetic introgression in Tennessee

Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) are one of the most popular freshwater sport fish in the United States and managers in southeastern states have stocked the Florida Bass (M. s. floridanus) subspecies outside of its natural range to increase size structure of existing Largemouth Bass populations. In Tennessee, fisheries for Largemouth Bass are concentrated in reservoirs of the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems; however, Florida Bass stockings have to date been restricted to two reservoirs of the Tennessee River and have varied significantly in extent and duration. We quantified levels of genetic admixture between Florida Bass and Largemouth Bass using 38 species-diagnostic single nucleotide polymorphisms for 979 fish sampled from 14 reservoirs from the Cumberland and Tennessee River systems. We tested for differences in genetic admixture across river systems and evaluated the relative importance of fish stockings in explaining observed levels of genetic admixture. Levels of genetic admixture and associated variation was higher in reservoirs of the Tennessee River (range = 6.3 – 30.4 average percent Florida Bass alleles) relative to the Cumberland River (range = 5.7 – 13.4 %), but admixture was not solely related to stocking rates. The highest levels of Florida Bass introgression were detected in Chickamauga Reservoir, the most extensively stocked reservoir in the state. Linear models identified fish stocked as a significant overall predictor of admixture, but we also observed stocked and unstocked reservoirs with similar levels of admixture, suggesting factors other than stocking influence population genetics. Our statewide assessment of reservoir-level patterns of hybridization among black bass was performed prior to the recent expansion of Florida Bass stocking efforts in Tennessee, and thus, represents a baseline for evaluating future stocking.

Tennessee↗
USGS1999

Status of lake trout rehabilitation in the Northern Refuge of Lake Michigan

The Northern Refuge in Lake Michigan was established in 1985 as part of a rehabilitation program to stock yearling lake trout Salvelinus namaycush in areas with the best potential for success. Stocking of hatchery-reared lake trout within the refuge began in 1986 at three reefs: Boulder Reef, Gull Island Reef, and Richards Reef. On each reef from 1991 to 1997 we conducted gill-net surveys during the fall spawning season to evaluate performance of adult lake trout, and we conducted beam trawl surveys for naturally reproduced age-0 lake trout in the spring. Criteria to evaluate performance included spawner density, growth, maturity, and mortality. We found no evidence of natural reproduction by lake trout from our surveys. Nevertheless, density of spawning lake trout on Boulder Reef (69 fish/305 m of gill net/night) and Gull Island Reef (34 fish/305 m of gill net/night) appeared to be sufficiently high to initiate a self-sustaining population. Growth and maturity rates of lake trout in the Northern Refuge were similar to those for lake trout stocked in the nearshore region of Lake Michigan. In the Northern Refuge, growth rate for the Marquette strain of lake trout was slightly higher than for the Lewis Lake strain. Annual mortality estimates from catch curve analyses ranged from 0.46 to 0.41, and therefore, these estimates approached a level that was considered to be sufficiently low to allow for a self-sustaining population. Thus, it appeared that the lack of evidence for natural reproduction by lake trout in the Northern Refuge should not be attributed to inability of the population to attain a sufficiently large stock of spawners.

North American Journal of Fisheries Management↗
USGS1978

Habitat use by prairie raccoons during the waterfowl breeding season

Mobility and habitat use of raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) in an intensively farmed area of the prairie pothole region were studied during the waterfowl breeding seasons (April-July) of 1973-75. Over 5700 locations of 30 raccoons were analyzed. Movement patterns varied with sex, age, and reproductive status. Adult males moved regularly throughout slightly overlapping ranges that averaged 2560 ha. Yearling males dispersed during May-June but their movements before and after dispersal were similar. Parous or pregnant females (mostly adults) had ranges averaging 806 ha but their movements were confined to smaller areas near the litter site after parturition. Nulliparous yearling females did not disperse and their ranges averaged 656 ha. Building sites, wooded areas, and wetlands were the only habitats preferentially used both at night and during the day. Eighty-one percent of all nocturnal locations and 94 percent of all diurnal locations were in these 3 habitats which comprised only 10 percent of the study area. Use of building sites decreased concomitantly with increased use of wetlands. Upland habitats were seldom used.

Journal of Wildlife Management↗
USGS1999

Autocorrelation of location estimates and the analysis of radiotracking data

The wildlife literature has been contradictory about the importance of autocorrelation in radiotracking data used for home range estimation and hypothesis tests of habitat selection. By definition, the concept of a home range involves autocorrelated movements, but estimates or hypothesis tests based on sampling designs that predefine a time frame of interest, and that generate representative samples of an animal's movement during this time frame, should not be affected by length of the sampling interval and autocorrelation. Intensive sampling of the individual's home range and habitat use during the time frame of the study leads to improved estimates for the individual, but use of location estimates as the sample unit to compare across animals is pseudoreplication. We therefore recommend against use of habitat selection analysis techniques that use locations instead of individuals as the sample unit. We offer a general outline for sampling designs for radiotracking studies.

Journal of Wildlife Management↗
USGS2019

Activity center selection by northern spotted owls

The federally threatened northern spotted owl ( Strix occidentalis caurina ) has been intensively studied across its range, and habitat needs for the species have influenced forest management in northwestern North America for decades. Dense forest canopies are often reported in the scientific literature and agency management plans as an important habitat attribute for spotted owls, though the means of measuring forest canopy and interpreting species requirements vary across studies and more importantly, among management plans. We used light detection and ranging (lidar) measurements of canopy cover, canopy surface heterogeneity, and upper canopy surface connectivity, and an index of the presence of a competitive invasive species, the barred owl ( S. varia ), in multinomial discrete choice models using a Bayesian framework to evaluate selection of forest cover types by spotted owls in Oregon, USA, 2008–2015. We designated yearly activity centers based on the most biologically significant observation during the nesting season (Mar–Aug), generally centered on the nest tree. Spotted owls selected activity centers with more canopy cover and higher heterogeneity of the canopy surface within 100 m than was available within their territories. The average proportion of canopy cover within 100 m of a spotted owl activity center was 0.79 ± 0.12 (SD; range = 0.34–0.99). The presence of barred owls did not explain variability in selection of spotted owl activity centers, but barred owls might not affect third‐order habitat selection within territories, or our index was too spatially coarse to detect these effects on spotted owl resource selection. We demonstrate that lidar provides researchers and managers with a tool that can accurately measure forest canopies over large areas, and assist in mapping spotted owl habitat.

Oregon↗
USGS2018

Hatchery strain contributions to emerging wild lake trout populations in Lake Huron

Recent assessments indicate the emergence of naturally produced lake trout ( Salvelinus namaycush ) recruitment throughout Lake Huron in the North American Laurentian Great Lakes (>50% of fish <7 years). Because naturally produced fish derived from different stocked hatchery strains are unmarked, managers cannot distinguish strains contributing to natural recruitment. We used 15 microsatellite loci to identify strains of naturally produced lake trout ( N = 1567) collected in assessment fisheries during early (2002–2004) and late (2009–2012) sampling periods. Individuals from 13 American and Canadian hatchery strains ( N = 1143) were genotyped to develop standardized baseline information. Strain contributions were estimated using a Bayesian inferential approach. Deviance information criteria were used to compare models evaluating strain contributions at different spatial and temporal scales. The best performing models were the most complex models, suggesting that hatchery strain contributions to naturally produced lake trout varied spatially among management districts and temporally between time periods. Contributions of Seneca strain lake trout were consistently high across most management districts, with contributions increasing from early to late time periods (estimates ranged from 52% to 94% for the late period across 8 of 9 districts). Strain contributions deviated from expectations based on historical stocking levels, indicating strains differed with respect to survival, reproductive success, and/or dispersal. Knowledge of recruitment levels of strains stocked in different management districts, and how strain-specific recruitment varies temporally, spatially, and as a function of local or regional stocking is important to prioritize strains for future stocking and management of the transition process from primarily hatchery to naturally produced stocks.

Journal of Heredity↗
USGS2022

Seasonal resource selection and movement ecology of free-ranging horses in the western United States

Understanding factors driving resource selection and habitat use of different species is an important component of management and conservation. Feral horses ( Equus caballus ) are free ranging across various vegetation types in the western United States, yet few studies have quantified their resource selection and seasonal use. We conducted a study to determine effects of vegetation community, distance to water, and topographic variables on seasonal resource selection in 2 feral horse populations in Great Basin sagebrush ( Artemisia spp.) ecosystems of west-central Utah, USA: Conger Herd Management Area (HMA) and Frisco HMA. We deployed global positioning system (GPS) radio-collars on 38 female horses and GPS-transmitters braided and glued into the tail hair of 14 males, collecting locations every 2 hours for 1–4 years between 2016 and 2020. We calculated home range size and core use area of social groups (harems) and bachelor males using auto-correlated kernel density estimators for each biologically defined season (breeding, fall, and winter) per study year. We examined seasonal home range size and overlap of harem groups and bachelor males and compared movement speed of bachelors and harems among seasons. We determined seasonal resource selection in a use-availability framework using resource selection functions. We hypothesized that horses would select for areas of high herbaceous vegetation, that water would be a key variable in resource selection models like other equids, and home range size in winter would be largest because horses can eat snow for hydration and could therefore roam farther from surface water. Mean annual home range size was 103.12 ± 37.38 km 2 (SD) for Conger harems and 117.47 ± 32.75 km 2 for Frisco harems. At Conger there was no difference in home range size between harem groups and bachelor males, but home range size was smaller in winter than other seasons, whereas winter home range size at Frisco was larger than other seasons. Bachelor males moved at higher speeds than harems during all seasons, and harem groups from both populations had lower movement speeds in winter. Harem groups had distinct winter ranges with little overlap on breeding season ranges. In both populations, all horses selected for herbaceous vegetation types and avoided forest relative to shrubland throughout the year. Harems at Frisco were consistently located closer to water sources, whereas selection for water sources by Conger harems varied seasonally, with winter having the lowest selection. Harem groups at Conger had an average of 10.6% of their home ranges outside the HMA boundary and Frisco harems had up to 66.8% outside, likely because of the horseshoe shape of Frisco HMA in which shrub meadows (foraging areas) comprise the horseshoe center, which is outside the HMA. Our results highlight the importance of water sources, which were a key predictor of horse movement patterns in our study. We emphasize the utility of telemetry devices to understand resource selection of feral horses at a fine scale, enabling management to be more targeted and facilitate planning.

Utah↗
USGS2019

Demographic factors affecting population growth in giant gartersnakes

Demographic models provide insight into which vital rates and life stages contribute most to population growth. Integral projection models (IPMs) offer flexibility in matching model structure to a species’ demography. For many rare species, data are lacking for key vital rates, and uncertainty might dissuade researchers from attempting to build a demographic model. We present work that highlights how the implications of uncertainties and unknowns can be explored by building and analyzing alternative models. We constructed IPMs for the threatened giant gartersnake ( Thamnophis gigas ) based on published studies to determine where management efforts could be targeted to have the greatest effect on population persistence and what unknowns remain for future research. Given uncertainty in the survival of snakes during their first year, and in the form of the size‐survival relationship, we modeled a range of scenarios and evaluated where models agree about factors influencing population growth and where discrepancies exist. For most scenarios, the survival of large adult females had the greatest influence on population growth, but the relative importance of juvenile versus adult somatic growth for population growth was dependent on the recruitment probability and the shape of the size‐survival function. More data on temporal variation and covariance among vital rates would improve stochastic models for the giant gartersnake. This paper demonstrates the effectiveness of IPMs for studying the demography of reptiles and the value of the model‐building process for formalizing what is known and unknown about the demography of rare species. Published 2019. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

California↗