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USGS2025

The abandoned mine inventory of the United States—A brief summary

The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021 required the Secretary of the Interior to establish a program to inventory abandoned hard-rock mines in the United States. The Department of the Interior’s Office of Environmental Policy and Compliance asked the U.S. Geological Survey’s Mineral Deposit Database project (USMIN) to use existing data sources to build an inventory of all individual abandoned mine features in the United States. In addition to feature locations, this new database documents the surface land management agency, associated physical and environmental hazards, and any completed mitigation efforts. This information will improve risk assessment and support land management efforts, including hazard mitigation, ecosystem restoration planning, and reclamation. This fact sheet provides a brief overview of USMIN’s collaborative efforts with Federal, State, and Tribal agencies to build a comprehensive and authoritative national inventory of abandoned mine features.

Fact Sheet↗
USGS2025

Seismic response of rock towers at the Trona Pinnacles (U.S.A.) to the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquake sequence: Theory, observations, and models

We analyze the seismic response of a class of fragile geologic features (FGFs), referred to as rock towers (RTs) at the Trona Pinnacles, a group of RTs in southern California that suffered strong shaking during the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquake sequence. FGFs, including RTs, may provide maximum constraints on past earthquake shaking intensity, and thereby support probabilistic seismic hazard assessments (PSHAs). In a rare case study, we explore the hypothesis that RT structural integrity is time dependent, as damage accumulates progressively. We develop finite‐element method (FEM) models of the RTs using photogrammetric shape models. We validate the models by comparing numerical simulations of their response to broadband ground shaking with low‐intensity seismic recordings obtained at the Pinnacles. Results of our simulations are in good agreement with the seismic recordings of actual earthquake aftershocks. We next use the results of the FEM models to analyze the response and evolution of RTs. Our analyses elucidate the influence of geometry over their seismic response, providing a rationale that may explain the rarity of slender RTs at Trona: high‐aspect‐ratio structures that respond in bending develop detrimental tensile stresses that crack the rock, whereas low‐aspect‐ratio ones’ response also includes shearing, which does not compromise material integrity as much as tension. Field measurements with a rebound hammer support this finding, suggesting that the material around the base of slender rocks has been weakened relative to other parts of the RT. We also study how to define simplified mechanical models (“archetypes”) to predict the natural frequencies of RTs. Results from our work illuminate the fundamental mechanisms of seismic response and progressive failure of RTs, and open new avenues of research to potentially incorporate these geologic features as long‐return period constraints on PSHA, in ways analogous to those of the widely used precariously balanced rocks.

California↗
USGS2026

Simulation of the impacts of spring diversions on streamflow in the Strawberry Creek watershed, San Bernardino County, California, using an integrated hydrological model

The Strawberry Creek watershed, in the San Bernardino Mountains of southern California, features a group of natural springs known as Arrowhead Springs that have been augmented with diversions in the form of sub-horizontal borings and tunnels. Understanding the effects of these structures on streamflow through groundwater capture is crucial for managing surface-water resources in this watershed. In this study, we constructed the Strawberry Creek integrated hydrological model to increase this understanding. The Strawberry Creek integrated hydrological model is an integrated surface runoff and groundwater model, GSFLOW to simulate surface runoff and infiltration and groundwater flow. The model has 263 rows and 176 columns in each of its three layers. The model area includes the Strawberry Creek and four adjacent watersheds. The precipitation-runoff modeling system was calibrated using two streamflow gaging stations, and the groundwater and surface-water flow model was calibrated to the reported spring diversion discharge and a sparse number of groundwater-level measurements. The Strawberry Creek integrated hydrological model was run with and without diversions active, and simulated streamflow was compared, indicating that in the headwaters of Strawberry Creek, about 35 percent of the diversion flow was captured from base flow.

California↗
USGS2025

Divide and conquer: Separating the two probabilities in seismic phase picking

There are two fundamental probabilities in the seismic phase picking process – the probability of the existence of a seismic phase (detection probability) and the probability of correctly identifying the phase arrival time (timing probability). The nearly ubiquitous approach in developing deep learning phase picking models is to use a kernel, such as a truncated Gaussian, to mask the labeled phase arrival time, and train a segmentation model. Once a model is trained, the times of the peaks in the output are taken as phase arrival times (picks) and the height of the peaks are taken as “probability” of the picks. Here, we show that this “probability” represents neither the detection nor the timing probabilty because this approach forces the output to follow the shape of the kernel. We introduce an approach using two models to estimate these two distinct probabilities. We use a binary classifier with a calibrated confidence to address the detection probability and a multi-class classifier to obtain a probability mass function to address the timing probability. This new approach makes the deep learning-based phase picking process more interpretable and gives us options to logically control seismic monitoring workflows.

Geophysical Journal International↗
USGS2025

Capturing the uncertainty of seismicity observations in earthquake rate estimates: Implications for probabilistic seismic hazard analysis and the USGS National Seismic Hazard Model

The rate of earthquakes in a region is a fundamental input to Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis. We present a Monte Carlo method for computing that rate from seismicity catalogs while including a range of data and analysis uncertainties. This method is applied to regions for which the b value is assumed to be spatially invariant. Each region is broken down into epochs for which each epoch is estimated to have a uniform magnitude of completeness ( ⁠⁠ M c ). The distribution of earthquake rates for M ≥ M c is determined for each epoch by considering the Poisson likelihood of rates given the number of observed earthquakes with M ≥ M c ⁠ . We use a Monte Carlo process to include the uncertainty in b , ⁠ M c , and individual event magnitudes. The result for each epoch is the joint distribution of the Poisson rate of earthquakes with magnitudes larger than the minimum value used to calculate hazard ( ⁠⁠ M 1 ) and the Gutenberg–Richter b values, which control the extrapolation to other magnitudes. The rate for each region is either the duration‐weighted average over the epochs or, to better capture temporal variations, we also consider mixture models. The mixture models also provide an avenue to allow temporal variations in b values. To implement this joint distribution in a logic tree, we use the mean and 95% confidence branches, each of which is parameterized with an M ≥ M 1 rate and b value. We explore different ways of defining those branches, as well as non‐Gutenberg–Richter branches, and their impact on hazard estimates. The mean hazard, but not the fractiles, is robust with respect to these choices. To illustrate these new methods, we use synthetic data and catalogs from recent U.S. Geological Survey National Seismic Hazard Models for the Central and Eastern United States and for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

central and eastern United States, Puerto Rico, U.↗
USGS2026

The potential impact of three-dimensional distributed slip models derived from real-time GNSS data on the performance of the ShakeAlert earthquake early warning system for slab interface earthquakes

The ShakeAlert® earthquake early warning (EEW) system is designed to warn users of imminent strong ground motion with sufficient time to take protective actions. ShakeAlert currently uses three algorithms to characterize the earthquake source. One estimates the location and magnitude using the first few seconds of the P wave and, while fast, tends to underestimate magnitude for M w 7.0+ earthquakes. A second estimates the location, orientation, length, and corresponding magnitude of a line source using observed peak ground acceleration and contributes primarily to M w 5.5+ earthquakes. The third infers earthquake magnitude from peak ground displacement measured using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data and offers nonsaturating magnitudes for M w 7.0+ earthquakes. Other EEW algorithms exist that infer temporally evolving spatially variable slip on a 3D fault surface from real‐time GNSS data, information that might enable more accurate and timely alerts in the event of large‐magnitude subduction interface earthquakes. Here, we evaluate the potential contribution of one such algorithm, BEFORES ( Minson et al. , 2014 ), to improve ShakeAlert performance through a simulated real‐time implementation of Bayesian evidence‐based fault orientation and real‐time earthquake slip (BEFORES) and other ShakeAlert algorithms using data for eight M w 7.6+ earthquakes. The test results demonstrate that BEFORES can produce well‐constrained and accurate magnitude estimates as soon as or sooner than other EEW algorithms, in turn enabling it to increase the amount of warning time users receive in many cases. However, with a modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) threshold of 3.5, which is commonly used for issuing alerts, BEFORES would tend to alert large geographic regions that did not feel strong shaking (MMI 6+). This effect can be mitigated using a higher alert threshold of MMI 4.5 without negative impact on the amount of warning time obtainable with BEFORES.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2025

Rare earth elements on the Moon

Rare earth elements (REEs) are a scarce but vital resource for our modern economies and lifestyles. Since the late 1990s, China has supplied the vast majority of the world’s refined REEs. Increasing global demand has broadened the search for REE deposits to unconventional places, including the Moon. Although most lunar rocks have very low REE concentrations, Apollo samples showed that one type of lunar rock containing potassium (K), REEs, and phosphorus (P)—known by the acronym KREEP—has high concentrations of REEs. Data from orbiting satellites have identified locations where substantial deposits of KREEP are likely. The viability of mining these deposits depends on the evolution of REE economics, the development of the Earth-Moon infrastructure, and the findings from future lunar mineral exploration missions.

Fact Sheet↗
USGS2025

Geologic map of the Greater Antilles and Virgin Islands

Introduction The geologic map of the Greater Antilles and Virgin Islands is a compilation of information from the literature, integrated to provide a seamless geologic map of the region. This map was prepared to serve as a base map for a mineral resource assessment of the region. Several small-scale regional geologic maps of the region have been prepared in the past. This report supersedes an earlier version of the geologic map of the Greater Antilles and the Virgin Islands that was released as U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Open-File Report 2019–1036. For this report, the regional geologic overview shown on sheet 1 covers Cuba; the island of Hispaniola, which includes Haiti and Dominican Republic; Jamaica; the Cayman Islands; Puerto Rico; and the U.S. and British Virgin Islands. Sheet 2 shows the geology of Cuba and Cayman Islands, sheet 3 the geology of Jamaica, sheet 4 the geology of Hispaniola, and sheet 5 the geology of Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands. Accompanying the maps are three tables: table 1 lists the map units (in alphabetical order by map-unit label), their ages, and the countries or territories in which they can be found. These are listed in alphabetical order for ease in locating unit names from the symbols on the maps. Table 2 is a list of sources for the geologic map compilation of Puerto Rico. Table 3 shows formations in the Devil’s Race Course Group of Jamaica.

Greater Antilles, Virgin Islands↗
USGS2025

The 3D Elevation Program—Supporting the economy of Massachusetts

Introduction Massachusetts extends from the mountains of the Appalachian system in the west of the State to the sandy beaches and rocky shorelines of the Atlantic coast in the east. Inland topographic data support a wide range of important activities, including geologic mapping, transportation planning, forest and wildlife management, quantifying ecological services, water supply protection, commonwealth-wide infrastructure planning, local site planning, and flood-plain management. Nearshore bathymetry can be used to support coastal portions of the Commonwealth by addressing the combined threats of ocean warming, strong storm surge, and rising sea levels. The maintenance and (or) expansion of Massachusetts ports (for instance, Boston, New Bedford) and Cape Cod sediment management depends upon the accurate mapping of bathymetry and the frequent influx of sediment and redeposition. Critical applications that address the broad range of requirements depend on light detection and ranging (lidar) data that provide a highly detailed three-dimensional (3D) model of the Earth’s surface and aboveground features. The 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) is managed by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in partnership with Federal, State, Tribal, U.S. territorial, and local agencies to acquire consistent lidar coverage at quality level 2 or better to meet the many needs of the Nation and Massachusetts. The status of available and in-progress 3DEP baseline lidar data in Massachusetts is shown in figure 1. 3DEP baseline lidar data include quality level 2 or better, 1-meter or better digital elevation models, and lidar point clouds, and must meet the Lidar Base Specification version 1.2 ( https://www.usgs.gov/3dep/lidarspec ) or newer requirements. The National Enhanced Elevation Assessment identified user requirements and conservatively estimated that availability of lidar data would result in at least $1.23 million in new benefits annually to Massachusetts. The top 10 Massachusetts business uses for 3D elevation data, which are based on the estimated annual conservative benefits of 3DEP, are shown in table 2.

Massachusetts↗
USGS2026

Hydrogeologic conceptualization of the Arroyos subarea and Northeast Air Force Research Laboratory subarea of the Air Force Research Laboratory, Edwards Air Force Base, Antelope Valley, California, 2017–21

Research and testing within the Air Force Research Laboratory at Edwards Air Force Base in the southwestern Mojave Desert has been conducted since the 1950s. This testing requires large quantities of groundwater for cooling and operations involving hazardous constituents that have entered the groundwater. To better understand the potential movement of contaminants through the groundwater system, the U.S. Geological Survey entered into a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Air Force Civil Engineer Center with the purpose of (1) gaining a more detailed understanding of the hydraulic connection between the unconsolidated basin-fill sediment and the underlying weathered and crystalline bedrock and (2) investigating faults and their potential effect on groundwater flow. This study was specific to the Arroyos subarea and Northeast Air Force Research Laboratory subarea of the Air Force Research Laboratory. The refined hydrogeologic characterization was derived by evaluating surface geologic maps, a regional gravity model, new subsurface geophysical surveys, lithology data from boreholes, and groundwater-level data. Refinement of the hydrogeologic characterization of the study area involved developing a map of basin-fill sediment thickness, estimating the geometry and depth to bedrock, determining the presence of weathered bedrock material, and identifying the location of faults and subsurface structures. The thickness of basin-fill sediment was derived from a regional gravity model. Basin-fill sediment ranges from less than 20 feet (ft) thick to about 150 ft thick and increases substantially toward a deep structural basin in the northwestern part of the study area. The top of bedrock estimated from the new surface geophysical surveys is generally deeper than the top of bedrock from the regional gravity model. These differences in interpreted bedrock tops indicate that there may be a zone of weathered bedrock in the subsurface, overlying crystalline bedrock. Additional subsurface data evaluating the geometry and thickness of weathered bedrock are necessary for a comprehensive evaluation of weathered bedrock in the study area. Previously unmapped extensions of the Leuhman Fault, Spring Fault Zone, and Boron Gate Fault were identified in the new surface geophysical surveys. Evaluation of groundwater flow between bedrock and basin-fill sediment, and the effects of faults on groundwater flow, was done using groundwater-level data from 2020. The groundwater table was in crystalline bedrock throughout most of the Arroyos and Northeast Air Force Research Laboratory subareas, with a few exceptions where it was in basin-fill sediment and weathered bedrock. Basin-fill sediment, and likely weathered bedrock, was partially saturated in parts of the study area where basin-fill sediment was as thick as 150 ft. Weathered bedrock material may be present near the Spring Fault Zone, and if so, was likely saturated in 2020. The groundwater-level data near and within Spring Fault Zone indicate that the Spring Fault Zone acts as a vertical-along-strike conduit for, and as an across-strike impediment to, groundwater flow. In addition, steep groundwater-level gradients in the southeastern part of the study area indicate that a subsurface structure affecting groundwater flow could be related to the Leuhman Fault. Sufficient groundwater-level data were not available to conclusively determine if the Arroyos, Rich, and Boron Gate Faults, and their inferred extensions from the geophysical surveys, affect the movement or direction of groundwater flow.

California↗
USGS2026

Top Elevation of Glacial Till and Thickness of the Big Sioux Aquifer Delineated From Electrical Resistivity Tomography Surveys Near Sioux Falls, South Dakota, 2022 and 2025

The City of Sioux Falls, South Dakota, requested the U.S. Geological Survey perform electrical resistivity surveys on three parcels of land north of the city. Electrical resistivity data were collected along a total of 22 transects during March 14–18, 2022, and November 17–21, 2025. Results from electrical resistivity surveys were used to delineate the top of glacial till deposits for the purpose of characterizing the Big Sioux aquifer near the city. Delineating geologic contacts provides important information on groundwater storage, flow dynamics, well design and placement, contaminant transport, groundwater–surface-water interactions, and regional water modeling. The top elevation of glacial till and the thickness of the Big Sioux aquifer varied among the three survey areas. The interpreted top elevation of glacial till in the North survey area decreases from east to west toward a slough, with elevations ranging from 1,403 to 1,418 feet (ft). The estimated thickness of the Big Sioux aquifer in the North survey area increased from east to west, with thicknesses ranging from 23 to 38 ft. The top elevation of glacial till in the Well 72 survey area generally decreases from northwest to southeast. Top elevations of the glacial till in the Well 72 survey area ranged from 1,400 to 1,409 ft along the southern end of transect W72_2. The estimated thickness of the Big Sioux aquifer in the Well 72 survey area was greatest along a southeast to northwest trending channel, with thicknesses ranging from 28 to 40 ft. The top elevation of glacial till in the Nose survey area generally decreases west toward the Big Sioux River. Top elevations of the glacial till in the Nose survey area ranged from 1,362 to 1,395 ft. The estimated thickness of the Big Sioux aquifer in the Nose survey area ranged from 33 to 70 ft.

South Dakota↗
USGS2025

Origin of the high Pd/Pt ratio of the J-M Reef, Stillwater Complex Montana USA

The J-M Reef of the Stillwater Complex exhibits a high and consistent Pd/Pt ratio (~3.8). This ratio results from the equilibration of an immiscible sulfide liquid with a relatively high Pd/Pt silicate melt rather than an unusually Pd- and Pt-enriched parental melt. Numerical modeling suggests that the original silicate melt contained typical mantle-derived concentrations of Pd and Pt (~10–20 ppb Pd/Pt ~1). The partitioning of Pt and Pd between sulfide liquid and silicate melt alone cannot explain the consistently high Pd/Pt ratio across variable melt-to-sulfide mass ratios (R factors). Instead Pt-depletion caused by the early fractionation of Pt-alloy from S-undersaturated silicate magma likely established the high Pd/Pt signature. High Pd/Pt ratios can form through batch equilibration of sulfide liquid with silicate melt if partition coefficients are extremely high (>10⁶). Alternatively Pd enrichment may result from sulfide upgrading within the resident footwall mush under smaller partition coefficients (10⁴–10⁶) in this model the instantaneous R factors remain low (R ≈ 100–700). This limits the impact of Pt and Pd partitioning on sulfide composition and helps explain the Pd-enriched character of the J-M Reef.

Montana↗
USGS2025

Paleomagnetic correlation of surface and subsurface basalt flows in the central and southwestern part of the Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy, used paleomagnetic data from 22 coreholes to construct 3 fence diagrams of subsurface basalt flows in the southern part of the Idaho National Laboratory. These diagrams provide comprehensive descriptions of the horizontal and vertical distribution of basalt flows and sediment layers beneath the surface, aiding geological studies and contributing valuable data to numerical models of groundwater flow and contaminant transport. The correlations established though these diagrams include spatial correlations between basalt flows found in multiple coreholes. Correlations were identified by matching average paleomagnetic inclinations and confirming or denying these correlations using petrology, geochemistry and radiometric ages. The fence diagrams aid in identifying potential locations of subsurface vents, volcanic vents that have been buried by more recent volcanic activity, associated to subsurface basalt flows. By tracing the subsurface flows and analyzing where the greatest thickness occurs, the locations of buried vents can be inferred. Some subsurface flows exhibit correlations across several coreholes and may indicate yet unidentified surface or buried vents, thereby enhancing our understanding of the volcanic history and subsurface geology of the region.

Idaho↗
USGS2024

Three-dimensional hydrogeologic framework model of the Russian River watershed, California

The Russian River watershed is in northern Sonoma County and southern Mendocino County, California, in the northern part of the California Coast Ranges. The Russian River serves as a supply for agricultural irrigation and for municipal, domestic, and commercial uses. Through a cooperative agreement with the California State Water Resources Control Board and Sonoma County Water Agency, the U.S. Geological Survey has completed studies to better understand the hydrogeologic system and develop numerical hydrologic modeling tools to evaluate and aid in managing groundwater resources. This report focuses on the development of a digital three-dimensional hydrogeologic framework model of the Russian River watershed for use in groundwater resource assessment and numerical models. The digital three-dimensional hydrogeologic framework model of the Russian River watershed portrays the altitude, thickness, and extent of five hydrogeologic units. These five hydrogeologic units include (1) a basement unit, (2) the Sonoma Volcanics, (3) a consolidated sedimentary rock unit, (4) an unconsolidated sediment unit, and (5) channel alluvium. Model input data were compiled from published geologic maps, interpreted well data, and a model of the top of basement derived from gravity data. These data were used to construct surfaces that represent the upper and lower subsurface boundaries of each hydrogeologic unit. Top surfaces were created for the five hydrogeologic units and then stacked in three dimensions to create a solid-volume digital model. The digital three-dimensional hydrogeologic framework model described in this report and the corresponding data represent the generalized geometry of the subsurface geologic units; the model reproduces the input geologic data with reasonable accuracy and is consistent with previously published subsurface conceptualizations of the region. The model indicates the overall geometry of the basement within the watershed and the spatial extent, altitude, and thickness of the basin-filling units. The hydrogeologic framework model is at a scale and resolution appropriate for use as the foundation for a numerical hydrologic model of the study area.

California↗
USGS1976

Transport and dispersion of fluorescent tracer particles for the dune-bed condition, Atrisco Feeder Canal near Bernalillo, New Mexico

A tracer technique in which mineral particles were coated with fluorescent dyes was used to study the rates of transport and dispersion of sediment particles`of various diameters and specific gravities for a dune-bed condition in an alluvial channel. The experiment was conducted in the Atrisco Feeder Canal near Bernalillo, N. Mex., between May 1 and July 14, 1967. A continuous point source of tracers, approximated by injections at 5- or 10-minute intervals, was maintained for 7 days so that the steady-dilution procedure could be used to calculate the transport rate of bed material. After termination of the injection process, the spatial-integration procedure was used to follow the movement of the tracers downstream and to calculate the transport rate. Samples of the bed material in transport and the accompanying tracers moving along the surface of the dune bed were obtained periodically throughout the study with the "dustpan" sampler especially designed for fluorescent tracer studies. In addition, the spatial distributions of the tracers in the dune bed were determined three times during the study by core sampling.

New Mexico↗
USGS2024

Iodine-129 in the eastern Snake River Plain aquifer at and near the Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho, 2021–22

Between the 1950s and 1980s, wastewater generated at the Idaho National Laboratory contained Iodine-129 ( 129 I); this wastewater was discharged directly into the eastern Snake River Plain (ESRP) aquifer through a deep disposal well, unlined infiltration ponds, or leaked from distribution systems below industrial facilities. During 2021–22, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy and the Idaho Department of Environmental Quality Idaho National Laboratory Oversight Program, collected groundwater samples from 64 monitoring wells in the ESRP aquifer, 6 of which are part of a multilevel monitoring system, to determine the concentration of 129 I in the groundwater. These samples were analyzed by accelerator mass spectrometry as part of a long-term ongoing study to track trends and occurrences of this carcinogenic, long-lived radionuclide in the environment. Concentrations ranged from slightly above the locally determined background concentration of 5.4×10 −6 picocuries per liter, to just below the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s maximum contaminant level of 1 picocurie per liter. Discharge of wastewater containing 129 I has been discontinued to the aquifer, and long-term trends from a subset (n=15) of sampled wells show decreasing 129 I concentrations over the last three decades. Concentrations of 129 I in groundwater from monitoring wells near facilities at the Idaho National Laboratory are affected by episodic recharge from an ephemeral surface-water source and by the fracture-flow dominated hydrologic regime in the ESRP aquifer. The spatially focused sampling effort has also identified a low-level 129 I plume that affects long-term water quality near and downgradient from the Advanced Test Reactor Complex in the southwestern part of the facility that had not been clearly defined in previous sampling efforts, although the definition of the plume is somewhat limited by available data.

Idaho↗
USGS2025

Prospectivity modeling of the NASA VIPER landing site at Mons Mouton near the Lunar South Pole

We use a high-resolution digital elevation model and a numerical thermal model to produce a variety of inputs for a water-ice prospectivity model for the Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover (VIPER) landing site. These input data are maps of topography, surface slope, surface aspect, surface curvature, maximum temperature, depth to ice stability, permanently shadowed regions (PSRs), distance to PSRs, and PSR density. This model predicts where water ice is most likely within the top meter of regolith, assuming plausible relationships between ice concentration and the various inputs. The model is designed to be adjusted in near-real time as data are collected during the VIPER mission. As such, it is a tool for both analyzing data from the mission as well as planning operations. Since the current model, at this point, relies only on orbital remote sensing, the final version will also be a tool to extrapolate the VIPER mission results across the lunar poles.

Planetary Science Journal↗