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At least 217 records · Page 12Linked to original sources
USGS2020

Evolution of the submarine–subaerial edifice of Bogoslof volcano, Alaska, during its 2016–2017 eruption based on analysis of satellite imagery

The 2016–2017 eruption of Bogoslof volcano involved at least 70 detected eruptive events between mid-December 2016 and August 30, 2017. Acquisition of high-resolution satellite imagery throughout the duration of the eruptive period allowed us to document and map the various morphologic changes that occurred on the subaerial part of Bogoslof Island. The emplacement of pyroclastic-flow and surge deposits caused the island to increase in area by about 1.5 km 2 . The dominant volcanic landforms of the eruption were a series of tuff rings emplaced around various submarine vents. Many of the tuff rings were mantled with surface dunes and impressive amounts of ballistic ejecta, likely derived from erupting magma bodies or previously emplaced submarine lava domes. Debris-flow deposits and surface channels extending over tuff ring surfaces apparent in multiple satellite images are evidence for explosive ejection of seawater. In most cases, erupting vents were initially submarine or began at subaerial lava domes and were largely flooded by seawater suggesting that water-magma ratios were likely high. Under such conditions where water is abundant, eruptive products typically reflect a high degree of water involvement and are dominated by the formation of wet tephra jets and flows and associated deposits typically consist of fine ash and lapilli, contain accretionary lapilli and ash aggregates, and usually form tuff cones and mounds. We observed none of these features in our analysis of satellite data or during our examination of eruptive deposits on Bogoslof Island in 2018. On the contrary, the dominant landform associated with the Bogoslof eruption was tuff rings. The development of tuff rings and surface dunes are commonly associated with the formation of pyroclastic base surges that are by comparison emplaced relatively dry. Dry base surge deposits can be generated from phreatomagmatic explosions involving superheated steam. It is possible that shallow submarine, magma–wet sediment interactions were a characteristic and possibly a dominant eruptive process of the 2016–2017 Bogoslof eruption.

Alaska↗
USGS2021

Lava effusion rate evolution and erupted volume during the 2018 Kīlauea lower East Rift Zone eruption

The 2018 eruption on the lower East Rift Zone of Kīlauea Volcano produced one of the largest and most destructive lava flows in Hawai’i during the past 200 years. Over the course of more than 3 months, twenty-four fissures erupted, and the rate of lava effusion varied by two orders of magnitude, with significant implications for evolving flow behavior and hazards. Syn-eruptive data were collected to quantify these changes in lava effusion rate, including video of flow through channels and digital elevation models acquired using small unoccupied aircraft systems, airborne lidar, and airborne single-pass interferometric synthetic aperture radar. Topographic data through time allowed calculation of subaerial lava flow volume and time-averaged discharge rate over the course of the eruption, which we integrated with pre- and post-eruption bathymetric surveys. Repeat videos of the near-vent channel were analyzed with particle velocimetry to extract flow velocities, and these were combined with open channel flow theory to calculate a time series of instantaneous effusion rates. Results show a general increase in dense rock equivalent (DRE) effusion rate from ~7 to ~100 m 3 /s from early to late May for the whole flow field and ≥ 200 m 3 /s by mid-June after the eruption had focused at a primary vent. By the end of the eruption in August, 0.9–1.4 km 3 DRE of lava had erupted, with 0.4 km 3 deposited on land and at least 0.5 km 3 offshore. The trends in effusion rate through time reflect magmatic processes in the connected summit and rift zone system that controlled eruption rate, with resulting implications for lava flow dynamics and hazards.

Hawaii↗
USGS2021

Assessing the biological reactivity of organic compounds on volcanic ash: Implications for human health hazard

Exposure to volcanic ash is a long-standing health concern for people living near active volcanoes and in distal urban areas. During transport and deposition, ash is subjected to various physicochemical processes that may change its surface composition and, consequently, bioreactivity. One such process is the interaction with anthropogenic pollutants; however, the potential for adsorbed, deleterious organic compounds to directly impact human health is unknown. We use an in vitro bioanalytical approach to screen for the presence of organic compounds of toxicological concern on ash surfaces and assess their biological potency. These compounds include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo- p -dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dlPCBs). Analysis of ash collected in or near urbanised areas at five active volcanoes across the world (Etna, Italy; Fuego, Guatemala; Kelud, Indonesia; Sakurajima, Japan; Tungurahua, Ecuador) using the bioassay inferred the presence of such compounds on all samples. A relatively low response to PCDD/Fs and the absence of a dlPCBs response in the bioassay suggest that the measured activity is dominated by PAHs and PAH-like compounds. This study is the first to demonstrate a biological potency of organic pollutants associated with volcanic ash particles. According to our estimations, they are present in quantities below recommended exposure limits and likely pose a low direct concern for human health.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2021

The petrologic and degassing behavior of sulfur and other magmatic volatiles from the 2018 eruption of Kīlauea, Hawaiʻi: Melt concentrations, magma storage depths, and magma recycling

Kīlauea Volcano’s 2018 lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced exceptionally high lava effusion rates and record-setting SO 2 emissions. The eruption involved a diverse range of magmas, including primitive basalts sourced from Kīlauea’s summit reservoirs. We analyzed LERZ matrix glasses, melt inclusions, and host minerals to identify melt volatile contents and magma storage depths. The LERZ glasses and melt inclusions span nearly the entire compositional range previously recognized at Kīlauea. Melt inclusions in Fo 86-89 olivine from the main eruptive vent (fissure 8) underwent 70–170 °C cooling during transport in LERZ carrier melts, causing extensive post-entrapment crystallization and sulfide precipitation. Many of these melt inclusions have low sulfur (400–900 ppm) even after correction for sulfide formation. CO 2 and H 2 O vapor saturation pressures indicate shallow melt inclusion trapping depths (1–5 km), consistent with formation within Kīlauea’s Halemaʻumaʻu and South Caldera reservoirs. Many of these inclusions also have degassed δ 34 S values (− 1.5 to − 0.5‰). Collectively, these results indicate that some primitive melts experienced near-surface degassing before being trapped into melt inclusions. We propose that decades-to-centuries of repeated lava lake activity and lava drain-back during eruptions (e.g., 1959 Kīlauea Iki) recycled substantial volumes of degassed magma into Kīlauea’s shallow reservoir system. Degassing and magma recycling from the 2008–2018 Halemaʻumaʻu lava lake likely reduced the volatile contents of LERZ fissure 8 magmas, resulting in lower fountain heights compared to many prior Kīlauea eruptions. The eruption’s extreme SO 2 emissions were due to high lava effusion rates rather than particularly volatile-rich melts.

Hawaii↗
USGS2021

A petrological and conceptual model of Mayon volcano (Philippines) as an example of an open-vent volcano

Mayon is a basaltic andesitic, open-vent volcano characterized by persistent passive degassing from the summit at 2463 m above sea level. Mid-size (<0.1 km3) and mildly explosive eruptions and occasional phreatic eruptions have occurred approximately every 10 years for over a hundred years. Mayon’s plumbing system structure, processes, and time scales driving its eruptions are still not well-known, despite being the most active volcano in the Philippines. We investigated the petrology and geochemistry of its crystal-rich lavas (~50 vol% phenocrysts) from nine historical eruptions between 1928 and 2009 and propose a conceptual model of the processes and magmatic architecture that led to the eruptions. The whole-rock geochemistry and mineral assemblage (plagioclase + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene + Fe-Ti oxide ± olivine) of the lavas have remained remarkably homogenous (54 wt% SiO2,~4 wt% MgO) from 1928 to 2009. However, electron microscope images and microprobe analyses of the phenocrysts and the existence of three types of glomerocrysts testify to a range of magmatic processes, including long-term magma residence, magma mixing, crystallization, volatile fluxing, and degassing. Multiple mineral-melt geothermobarometers suggest a relatively thermally buffered system at 1050±25 °C, with several magma residence zones, ranging from close to the surface, through reservoirs at ~4–5 km, and as deep as ~ 20 km. Diffusion chronometry on >200 orthopyroxene crystals reveal magma mixing timescales that range from a few days to about 65 years, but the majority are shorter than the decadal inter-eruptive repose period. This implies that magma intrusion at Mayon has been nearly continuous over the studied time period, with limited crystal recycling from one eruption to the next. The variety of plagioclase textures and zoning patterns reflect fluxing of volatiles from depth to shallower melts through which they eventually reach the atmosphere through an open conduit. The crystal-rich nature of the erupted magmas may have developed during each inter-eruptive period. We propose that Mayon has behaved over almost 100 years as a steady state system, with limited variations in eruption frequency, degassing flux, magma composition, and crystal content that are mainly determined by the amount and composition of deep magma and volatile input in the system. We explore how Mayon volcano’s processes and working model can be related to other open-vent mafic and water-rich systems such as Etna, Stromboli, Villarrica, or Llaima. Finally, our understanding of open-vent, persistently active volcanoes is rooted in historical observations, but volcano behavior can evolve over longer time frames. We speculate that these volcanoes produce specific plagioclase textures that can be used to identify similar volcanic behavior in the geologic record.

Mayon volcano↗
USGS2021

High-speed lava flow infrasound from Kīlauea’s fissure 8 and its utility in monitoring effusion rate

The 2018 eruption of Kīlauea Volcano produced large and destructive lava flows from the fissure 8 (Ahu ‘aila ‘au) vent with flow velocities up to 17 m s −1 , highly variable effusion rates over both short (minutes) and long (hours) time scales, and a proximal channel or spillway that displayed flow features similar to open channel flow in river systems. Monitoring such dynamic vent and lava flow systems is a challenge. Our results demonstrate that infrasound, combined with ground-based observations and imagery from unoccupied aircraft systems (UAS), can be used to distinguish vent degassing activity from high-speed lava flow activity. We use spectral characteristics and the infrasound frequency index (FI) to distinguish spillway infrasound from vent infrasound. Comparing FI with flow speeds derived from UAS videos reveals that spillway infrasound only occurs when flow speeds were sufficiently high to cause a supercritical flow state and breaking waves (Froude values > 1.7), and we propose that the spillway signals are produced primarily through the interaction of the turbulent lava-free surface with the atmosphere. We show that FI can also provide a means to track bulk effusion rate. Our results indicate that infrasound offers a new way to characterize lava flow channel hydraulics and is a powerful tool for monitoring effusive eruptions when high-speed flows are possible.

Hawaii↗
USGS2021

Evolution in eruptive style of the 2018 eruption of Veniaminof volcano, Alaska, reflected in groundmass textures and remote sensing

Variable eruptive style and explosivity is common in basaltic to basaltic andesite volcanoes but can have uncertain origins. Veniaminof volcano in the Alaska-Aleutian arc is a frequently active open-vent center, regularly producing Strombolian eruptions and small lava flows from an intracaldera cone within an intracaldera ice cap. The September–December 2018 eruption of Veniaminof evolved in explosivity over time. The eruption was documented with frequent satellite observations, syn- and post-eruption structure-from-motion photo surveys, and post-eruption sampling of lava flows and tephra preserved in the syn-eruption snowpack. Lava flows with a total volume of ~ 6 × 10 6 m 3 flowed down the cone flanks into the ice cap, overthickening at ice marginal flow fronts. Smaller tephra deposits were estimated at ~ 1–2 × 10 6 m 3 dense rock equivalent, with almost half of this volume deposited directly on the eruptive cone itself. Erupted products were basaltic andesite, and composition (54 ± 0.7 wt% bulk rock, 58 ± 0.7 wt% glass SiO 2 ), sideromelane microlite crystallinity (20–30%), and microlite number density (plagioclase 6.4 ± 2.6 × 10 5 n/mm 3 ) did not change significantly over the eruption suggesting a similar magma source and ascent rate. We defined tephra componentry with groundmass microcrystalline textures using backscatter electron images. The componentry of tephra groundmass showed significant increases in tachylite grains, defined here by the presence of dendritic interstitial nanolites, corresponding to increasing seismic tremor and periods of increased ash emissions. We suggest that these componentry changes reflect increasing undercooled zones on the conduit margins that increased brittle shearing, fragmentation, and ultimately ash emissions.

Alaska↗
USGS2021

Evaluating lava flow propagation models with a case study from the 2018 eruption of Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai'i

The 2018 lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption of Kīlauea, Hawai’i, provides an excellent natural laboratory with which to test models of lava flow propagation. During early stages of eruption crises, the most useful lava flow propagation equations utilize readily determined parameters and require fewer a priori assumptions about future behavior of the flow. Here, we leverage the numerous observations of lava flows collected over the duration of the eruption crisis at Kīlauea in 2018 to test simple lava flow propagation models. These models track the one-dimensional propagation of the flows according to three main rheological restraining forces: bulk viscosity, yield strength, and growth of a surface crust. We calculate the predicted changes in length through time of three flows that vary in bulk composition, crystal content, and total flow length. Cooler flows that are more crystal-rich tend to be more dominated by crust growth, though early stages of propagation can be controlled by bulk viscosity. We find that variations in effusion rate significantly impact flows that are short-lived; flows that are produced during steady-state effusion are readily approximated by average values for the entire flow. Thus, accurate knowledge of variations in effusion rate are critical to accurate lava flow propagation forecasting.

Hawaii↗
USGS2021

From anecdotes to quantification: Advances in characterizing volcanic eruption impacts on the built environment

Over the past 20 years, our understanding of volcanic eruption impacts on the built environment has transformed from being primarily observational with small datasets to one grounded in field investigations, laboratory experiments, and quantitative modeling, with an emphasis on stakeholder collaboration and co-creation. Here, we summarize key advances and knowledge gaps of impacts across volcanic hazards and built environment types from the past 20 + years. Studies have concentrated on impacts from tephra fall (ash) and to buildings, with less examination of other hazards’ impacts to critical infrastructure. As we look to the next decade, we speculate on likely research directions, including the increasing role of new technologies, higher resolution modeling, transdisciplinary collaborations, and evidence-based mitigative solutions.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2021

Progress in protecting air travel from volcanic ash clouds

The Eyjafjallajökull eruption of 2010 demonstrated the far-reaching impact of ash clouds and the vulnerability of our jet-based society to them, prompting a review of procedures to detect, warn, and forecast ash cloud hazards to aviation. The years since 2010 have seen marked improvements in satellite technology, more accurate ash-dispersion models that integrate simulations with observations, and more thoroughly vetted and harmonized procedures for forecasting and communicating hazards. In the coming decade, we expect these trends to continue, with formal warning products migrating from text and simplified maps to 4D data streams. This paper details some of these advancements and challenges ahead.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2021

Strengthening local volcano observatories through global collaborations

We consider the future of volcano observatories in a world where new satellite technologies and global data initiatives have greatly expanded over the last two decades. Observatories remain the critical tie between the decision-making authorities and monitoring data. In the coming decade, the global scientific community needs to continue to collaborate in a manner that will strengthen volcano observatories while building those databases and scientific models that allow us to improve forecasts of eruptions and mitigate their impacts. Observatories in turn need to contribute data to allow these international collaborations to prosper.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2021

Volcanic air pollution and human health: Recent advances and future directions

Volcanic air pollution from both explosive and effusive activity can affect large populations as far as thousands of kilometers away from the source, for days to decades or even centuries. Here, we summarize key advances and prospects in the assessment of health hazards, effects, risk, and management. Recent advances include standardized ash assessment methods to characterize the multiple physicochemical characteristics that might influence toxicity; the rise of community-based air quality monitoring networks using low-cost gas and particulate sensors; the development of forecasting methods for ground-level concentrations and associated public advisories; the development of risk and impact assessment methods to explore health consequences of future eruptions; and the development of evidence-based, locally specific measures for health protection. However, it remains problematic that the health effects of many major and sometimes long-duration eruptions near large populations have gone completely unmonitored. Similarly, effects of prolonged degassing on exposed populations have received very little attention relative to explosive eruptions. Furthermore, very few studies have longitudinally followed populations chronically exposed to volcanic emissions; thus, knowledge gaps remain about whether chronic exposures can trigger development of potentially fatal diseases. Instigating such studies will be facilitated by continued co-development of standardized protocols, supporting local study teams and procuring equipment, funding, and ethical permissions. Relationship building between visiting researchers and host country academic, observatory, and agency partners is vital and can, in turn, support the effective communication of health impacts of volcanic air pollution to populations, health practitioners, and emergency managers.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2022

Trends in volcano seismology: 2010 to 2020 and beyond

Volcano seismology has been fundamental to our current understanding of crustal magma migration and eruption. The increasing availability of portable seismic networks with the creative use of seismic sources and ambient noise has led to a better understanding of the volcanic structure of many volcanoes and is producing increasingly detailed images of the volcanic subsurface. The past decade (2010-2020) has seen advances in our understanding of seismic sources under and surrounding volcanoes through precise locations, and through analysis of source mechanisms from seismic signals that are more varied and smaller in magnitude, reaching beyond traditional techniques. In tandem with continued research on fundamental physics-based understanding of volcano-seismic sources, new advances in computational analyses including machine learning methods will push our understanding of volcanic processes into the future. Incorporation of multidisciplinary geophysical observations (especially infrasound) has become commonplace, and our understanding of infrasound propagation and sources will feed back into our ability to monitor ongoing eruptions and surficial mass movements. Open-source codes will permit widespread evaluation and adoption of new methodologies for volcano-seismic analysis and inversion. Combined with quantitative and conceptual source models using improved structural constraints, these new methodologies will better characterize the range of volcano-seismic signal evolution scenarios and hold promise for creating better short-term forecasts. Finally, permanent instrumentation is available on an expanding range of volcanoes, and open data policies are increasingly making these data available to the scientific community in near real time.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2022

Volcano geodesy using InSAR in 2020: The past and next decades

The study of volcano deformation has grown significantly through they year 2020 since the development of interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) in the 1990s. This relatively new data source, which provides evidence of changes in subsurface magma storage and pressure without the need for ground-based equipment, has matured during the past decade. It now provides a means to address previously inaccessible questions and offers input to increasingly complex models of magmatic processes. Here, we review how technological advances in InSAR during 2010-2020 have facilitated our ability to monitor and interpret volcanic processes, primarily through rapid and accurate observations of the changing surfaces at active volcanoes worldwide. Specifically, we examine how current systems achieve excellent resolution in time and space, provide global coverage, and generate products that are easy to use by non-specialists—factors that have often limited the practical study of volcanoes using radar measurements. We also look to the future, offering our perspective about how advancements in technology and data management in the decade to come will increase the value and accessibility of InSAR applied to the geodetic study of volcanoes and monitoring of hazardous volcanic processes. New developments will include the launch of additional satellites by both public space agencies and private companies, as well as implementation of algorithms for exploiting the growing volumes of data. To meet their full potential, these efforts will require coordination between data users and data providers so that the relevant imagery is acquired, made available to volcanologists in a timely fashion, and utilized to assess and mitigate volcanic hazards.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2022

Synthetic aperture radar volcanic flow maps (SAR VFMs): A simple method for rapid identification and mapping of volcanic mass flows

Volcanic mass flows, including lava, pyroclastic density currents, and lahars, account for the bulk of fatalities and infrastructure damage caused by volcanic eruptions. Mapping these flows soon after their emplacement is vital to understanding their impact and to forecasting the likely behavior of potential future flows. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can provide useful information about surface properties and changes regardless of environmental conditions or time of day, but no individual SAR product can unambiguously detect and map surface mass flows in all conditions. Combining SAR products, however, can capitalize on the strengths and compensate for the weaknesses of individual data types. SAR volcanic flow maps (SAR VFMs) merge cross-polarized amplitude imagery from two different dates with interferometric coherence spanning those dates. The combination of amplitude change with coherence provides a means of detecting volcanic mass flows regardless of surface conditions, and data collected by satellite provide the spatial coverage needed to detect changes over broad areas. Application to eruptions of Kīlauea (Hawaiʻi), Nyiragongo (Democratic Republic of Congo), Sinabung (Indonesia), and Fuego (Guatemala) demonstrate the value of SAR VFMs for monitoring hazardous volcanic activity, and the importance of acquiring cross-polarized satellite SAR imagery for volcano applications. The ever-growing number of public and private satellite SAR missions will provide for improved temporal resolution in SAR VFMs in the future, and the technique may be suitable for automated analysis that is capable of timely identification of changes due to volcanic activity, even in areas that are otherwise unmonitored.

Hawaii↗
USGS2022

Evidence for near-source nonlinear propagation of volcano infrasound from Strombolian explosions at Yasur Volcano, Vanuatu

Volcanic eruption source parameters may be estimated from acoustic pressure recordings dominant at infrasonic frequencies (< 20 Hz), yet uncertainties may be high due in part to poorly understood propagation dynamics. Linear acoustic propagation of volcano infrasound is commonly assumed, but nonlinear processes such as wave steepening may distort waveforms and obscure the sourcing process in recorded waveforms. Here we use a previously developed frequency-domain nonlinearity indicator to quantify spectral changes due to nonlinear propagation primarily in 80 signals from explosions at Yasur Volcano, Vanuatu. We find evidence for &#x2264; "> ≤ ≤ 10 −3 dB/m spectral energy transfer in the band 3–9 Hz for signals with amplitude on the order of several hundred Pa at 200–400 m range. The clarity of the nonlinear spectral signature increases with waveform amplitude, suggesting stronger nonlinear changes for greater source pressures. We observe similar results in application to synthetics generated through finite-difference wavefield simulations of nonlinear propagation, although limitations of the model complicate direct comparison to the observations. Our results provide quantitative evidence for nonlinear propagation that confirms previous interpretations made on the basis of qualitative observations of asymmetric waveforms.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2022

A golden era for volcanic gas geochemistry?

The exsolution, rise, expansion, and separation of volatiles from magma provides the driving force behind both effusive and explosive volcanic eruptions. The field of volcanic gas geochemistry therefore plays a key role in understanding volcanism. In this article, we summarize the most important findings of the past few decades and how these shape today’s understanding of volcanic degassing. We argue that the recent advent of automated, continuous geochemical monitoring at volcanoes now allows us to track activity from unrest to eruption, thus providing valuable insights into the behavior of volatiles throughout the entire sequence. In the next 10 years, the research community stands to benefit from the expansion of geochemical monitoring networks to many more active volcanoes. This, along with technical advances in instrumentation, and in particular the increasing role that unoccupied aircraft systems (UAS) and satellite-based observations are likely to play in collecting volcanic gas measurements, will provide a rich dataset for testing hypotheses and developing diagnostic tools for eruption forecasts. The use of consistent, well-documented analytical methods and ensuring free, public access to the collected data with few restrictions will be most beneficial to the advancement of volcanic gas science.

Bulletin of Volcanology↗
USGS2022

Damage assessment for the 2018 lower East Rift Zone lava flows of Kīlauea volcano, Hawaiʻi

Cataloguing damage and its correlation with hazard intensity is one of the key components needed to robustly assess future risk and plan for mitigation as it provides important empirical data. Damage assessments following volcanic eruptions have been conducted for buildings and other structures following hazards such as tephra fall, pyroclastic density currents, and lahars. However, there are relatively limited quantitative descriptions of the damage caused by lava flows, despite the number of communities that have been devastated by lava flows in recent decades (e.g., Cumbre Vieja, La Palma, 2021; Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2002 and 2021; Fogo, Cape Verde, 2014–2015). The 2018 lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) lava flows of Kīlauea volcano, Hawaiʻi, inundated 32.4 km 2 of land in the Puna District, including residential properties, infrastructure, and farmland. During and after the eruption, US Geological Survey scientists and collaborators took over 8000 aerial and ground photographs and videos of the eruption processes, deposits, and impacts. This reconnaissance created one of the largest available impact datasets documenting an effusive eruption and provided a unique opportunity to conduct a comprehensive damage assessment. Drawing on this georeferenced dataset, satellite imagery, and 2019 ground-based damage surveys, we assessed the pre-event typology and post-event condition of structures within and adjacent to the area inundated by lava flows during the 2018 LERZ eruption. We created a database of damage: each structure was assigned a newly developed damage state and data quality category value. We assessed 3165 structures within the Puna District and classified 1839 structures (58%) as destroyed, 90 structures (3%) as damaged, and 1236 (39%) as unaffected. We observed a range of damage states, affected by the structural typology and hazard characteristics. Our study reveals that structures may be damaged or destroyed beyond the lava flow margin, due to thermal effects from the lava flow, fire spread, or from exposure to a range of hazards associated with fissure eruptions, such as steam, volcanic gases, or tephra fall. This study provides a major contribution to the currently limited evidence base required to forecast future lava flow impacts and assess risk.

Hawaii↗