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At least 199 records · Page 11Linked to original sources
USGS2015

Demographic and spatiotemporal patterns of avian influenza infection at the continental scale, and in relation to annual life cycle of a migratory host

Since the spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in the eastern hemisphere, numerous surveillance programs and studies have been undertaken to detect the occurrence, distribution, or spread of avian influenza viruses (AIV) in wild bird populations worldwide. To identify demographic determinants and spatiotemporal patterns of AIV infection in long distance migratory waterfowl in North America, we fitted generalized linear models with binominal distribution to analyze results from 13,574 blue-winged teal ( Anas discors , BWTE) sampled in 2007 to 2010 year round during AIV surveillance programs in Canada and the United States. Our analyses revealed that during late summer staging (July-August) and fall migration (September-October), hatch year (HY) birds were more likely to be infected than after hatch year (AHY) birds, however there was no difference between age categories for the remainder of the year (winter, spring migration, and breeding period), likely due to maturing immune systems and newly acquired immunity of HY birds. Probability of infection increased non-linearly with latitude, and was highest in late summer prior to fall migration when densities of birds and the proportion of susceptible HY birds in the population are highest. Birds in the Central and Mississippi flyways were more likely to be infected compared to those in the Atlantic flyway. Seasonal cycles and spatial variation of AIV infection were largely driven by the dynamics of AIV infection in HY birds, which had more prominent cycles and spatial variation in infection compared to AHY birds. Our results demonstrate demographic as well as seasonal, latitudinal and flyway trends across Canada and the US, while illustrating the importance of migratory host life cycle and age in driving cyclical patterns of prevalence.

PLoS ONE↗
USGS2009

Effect of distance-related heterogeneity on population size estimates from point counts

Point counts are used widely to index bird populations. Variation in the proportion of birds counted is a known source of error, and for robust inference it has been advocated that counts be converted to estimates of absolute population size. We used simulation to assess nine methods for the conduct and analysis of point counts when the data included distance-related heterogeneity of individual detection probability. Distance from the observer is a ubiquitous source of heterogeneity, because nearby birds are more easily detected than distant ones. Several recent methods (dependent double-observer, time of first detection, time of detection, independent multiple-observer, and repeated counts) do not account for distance-related heterogeneity, at least in their simpler forms. We assessed bias in estimates of population size by simulating counts with fixed radius w over four time intervals (occasions). Detection probability per occasion was modeled as a half-normal function of distance with scale parameter sigma and intercept g(0) = 1.0. Bias varied with sigma/w; values of sigma inferred from published studies were often <25 m, which suggests a bias of >50% for a 100-m fixed-radius count. More critically, the bias of adjusted counts sometimes varied more than that of unadjusted counts, and inference from adjusted counts would be less robust. The problem was not solved by using mixture models or including distance as a covariate. Conventional distance sampling performed well in simulations, but its assumptions are difficult to meet in the field. We conclude that no existing method allows effective estimation of population size from point counts.

The Auk↗
USGS2000

Organochlorine and metal contaminant exposure and effects in hatching Black-Crowned Night Herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) in Delaware Bay

Pea Patch Island in Delaware Bay is the site of the largest heronry north of Florida. From 1989–93, the population of nine species of wading birds numbered approximately 12,000 pairs, but has recently declined to about 7,000 pairs. Because Delaware Bay is a major shipping channel and receives anthropogenic releases of toxic substances from agricultural, industrial, and municipal point and nonpoint sources, contaminant exposure and effects to the heronry have been an ongoing concern. In 1997, pipping (early hatching stage) black-crowned night herons ( Nycticorax nycticorax ) were collected from separate nests at Pea Patch Island and from a coastal reference site, Middle Island in Rehoboth Bay, Delaware. There was no evidence of malformations or hepatic histopathological lesions in embryos, and their body and liver weights did not differ between sites. Biomarkers of petroleum hydrocarbons, polyhalogenated contaminant, and metal exposure (cytochrome P450 induction and oxidative stress responses) did not differ (p > 0.05) between sites, although activities of benzyloxy- O -dealkylase and ethoxyresorufin- O -dealkylase were somewhat elevated in 3 of the 15 embryos collected from Pea Patch Island. Concentrations of 21 organochlorine pesticides and metabolites were relatively low at both sites, with p,p′ -DDE values well below the threshold associated with eggshell thinning. Although total PCB concentration was modestly elevated (p < 0.05) in Pea Patch Island heron embryos, levels of arylhydrocarbon receptor-active PCB congeners, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans, and toxic equivalents were low and did not differ between sites. Concentrations of Cd and Mn in pipping embryos from Pea Patch Island were slightly greater (p < 0.05) than values observed in Middle Island embryos, but levels of these and the other metals and metalloids ( e.g. , Hg and Se) were below values associated with toxicity. In conclusion, it seems unlikely that chlorinated hydrocarbon and metal contaminant exposure constitutes a direct threat to the reproductive success of black-crowned night herons at Pea Patch Island. However, low-level exposure to these contaminants may constitute one of many stressors that in combination could adversely affect the stability of the wading bird population at this large heronry.

Delaware↗
USGS2012

Large-scale monitoring of shorebird populations using count data and N-mixture models: Black Oystercatcher ( Haematopus bachmani ) surveys by land and sea

Large-scale monitoring of bird populations is often based on count data collected across spatial scales that may include multiple physiographic regions and habitat types. Monitoring at large spatial scales may require multiple survey platforms (e.g., from boats and land when monitoring coastal species) and multiple survey methods. It becomes especially important to explicitly account for detection probability when analyzing count data that have been collected using multiple survey platforms or methods. We evaluated a new analytical framework, N -mixture models, to estimate actual abundance while accounting for multiple detection biases. During May 2006, we made repeated counts of Black Oystercatchers ( Haematopus bachmani ) from boats in the Puget Sound area of Washington ( n = 55 sites) and from land along the coast of Oregon ( n = 56 sites). We used a Bayesian analysis of N-mixture models to (1) assess detection probability as a function of environmental and survey covariates and (2) estimate total Black Oystercatcher abundance during the breeding season in the two regions. Probability of detecting individuals during boat-based surveys was 0.75 (95% credible interval: 0.42–0.91) and was not influenced by tidal stage. Detection probability from surveys conducted on foot was 0.68 (0.39–0.90); the latter was not influenced by fog, wind, or number of observers but was ~35% lower during rain. The estimated population size was 321 birds (262–511) in Washington and 311 (276–382) in Oregon. N-mixture models provide a flexible framework for modeling count data and covariates in large-scale bird monitoring programs designed to understand population change.

Oregon;Washington↗
USGS2023

Monitoring Avian Productivity and Survivorship (MAPS) 6-year summary, Naval Outlying Landing Field, Imperial Beach, southwestern San Diego County, California, 2014–20

Executive Summary From 2014 to 2020, a Monitoring Avian Productivity and Survivorship (MAPS) banding station (station) was operated at the Naval Outlying Landing Field (NOLF), Imperial Beach, in southwestern San Diego County, California. The station was established as part of a long-term monitoring program of Neotropical migratory bird populations on NOLF and helps Naval Base Coronado (NOLF is a component) meet the goals and objectives of the Department of Defense Partners in Flight program and the Birds and Migratory Birds Management Strategies of the Naval Base Coronado Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan. The station was established in 2009 and has been in operation during the spring and summer since 2009 except for 2016 when it was not funded. The station was operated by AMEC Earth and Environmental, Inc., from 2009 to 2011, by the U.S. Geological Survey from 2012 to 2015, the San Diego Natural History Museum in 2017, and the U.S. Geological Survey again from 2018 to 2023. This report synthesizes results from 2014 to 2020. A prior report presents summaries and analyses from 2009 to 2013. The banding station at NOLF was operated according to the standard MAPS protocol with some exceptions. Ten mist nets used to capture birds were erected in fixed locations that remained consistent between and within years, with few minor relocations. Nets were open for 6 hours per day, once every 10 days (a netting period) for 13 netting periods starting April 1 each year. Occasionally, poor weather conditions (for example, rain, wind, or excessive heat) prevented net operation or forced nets to be closed early (or, rarely, late). Nets were checked periodically throughout the day and birds were removed, processed (leg bands affixed, measurements recorded), and released. From 2014 to 2020, we had 3,543 captures (including initial captures and recaptures) of a maximum of 3,264 year-unique captures (543±143 year-unique captures [the total number of individual birds captured for the first time each year]). The count of year-unique captures included 2,702 newly banded birds, 258 individuals that were recaptured from previous years, and 304 birds that were released unbanded (218 hummingbirds and 86 other birds that were intentionally released unbanded [game birds, and so forth] or escaped before banding). Individuals of 68 species were captured, 39 of which breed at or in the immediate vicinity of the MAPS banding station. Bird capture rate averaged 43±30 captures per day (corrected to account for variation in effort) for all years (range 7–163 effort-corrected captures per day) and species richness per year averaged 43±4. Bushtit ( Psaltriparus minimus ) was the most abundant species captured, followed by Orange-crowned Warbler ( Leiothlypis celata ), Wilson’s Warbler ( Cardellina pusilla ), House Finch ( Haemorhous mexicanus ), Song Sparrow ( Melospiza melodia ), and Common Yellowthroat ( Geothlypis trichas ). The mean adult sex ratio of all species combined across all years was 54:46 male:female. Adults averaged 73±12 percent of known age captures per year (range 59–94 percent), and juveniles averaged 27±12 percent (range 6–41 percent). Nineteen sensitive species were detected at NOLF (12 captured and 7 observed only). During 2014–20, we captured one State and federally endangered species, Least Bell’s Vireo ( Vireo bellii pusillus ); one federally threatened species, California Gnatcatcher ( Polioptila californica ); one State endangered species, Willow Flycatcher ( Empidonax traillii ); and two State species of concern, Yellow-breasted Chat ( Icteria virens ) and Yellow Warbler ( Setophaga petechia ). One additional State species of concern, Northern Harrier ( Circus hudsonius ), was observed at the MAPS banding station but not captured. Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) and White-tailed Kite ( Elanus leucurus ), California State fully protected species, also were observed at the MAPS banding station. Seven federal bird species of conservation concern—Calliope Hummingbird ( Selasphorus calliope ), Rufous Hummingbird ( Selasphorus rufus ), Allen’s Hummingbird ( Selasphorus sasin ), Nuttall’s Woodpecker ( Dryobates nuttallii ), Wrentit ( Chamaea fasciata ), California Thrasher ( Toxostoma redivivum ), and Lawrence’s Goldfinch ( Spinus lawrencei )—also were captured, and four additional federal bird species of conservation concern—Willet ( Tringa semipalmata ), Western Gull ( Larus occidentalis ), California Gull ( Larus californicus ), and Bullock’s Oriole ( Icterus bullockii )—were observed but not captured. Local population trends varied among species and years. From 2012 to 2019, year-round residents Bushtit, Song Sparrow, and Common Yellowthroat significantly decreased, whereas the migrant Least Bell’s Vireo increased. The total number of captures for all species except Least Bell’s Vireo was lowest in 2017, corresponding to the habitat damage caused by Kuroshio shot hole borer beetle ( Euwallacea kuroshio ) in the Tijuana River Valley. Annual productivity and annual adult survival were calculated for seven breeding species based on criteria used by the Institute for Bird Populations (Least Bell’s Vireo, Bushtit, Wrentit, House Wren [ Troglodytes aedon ], Song Sparrow, Orange-crowned Warbler, and Common Yellowthroat). Productivity was highest for most species in 2010 and 2019, years with high precipitation, and lowest in 2014 and 2018, years with low precipitation. Song Sparrow demonstrated the highest productivity among species and Least Bell’s Vireo had the lowest productivity. Annual adult survival was generally high from 2011 to 2012 and from 2018 to 2019. Bushtit had higher annual survival with lower late winter precipitation. Either temperature or precipitation was associated with productivity for all species except Wrentit, and with survival for all species except Least Bell’s Vireo and Common Yellowthroat. For most species, productivity was positively associated with precipitation, and both productivity and survival were negatively associated with temperature. Other studies have found that higher temperatures led to increased predation by snakes and birds and also increased vector-borne disease transmission, such as West Nile virus. Predicted regional increases in temperature over the next 30 years will likely affect the demographics of these species. The Song Sparrow population increased with higher breeding productivity during the previous year, and the Bushtit population increased with higher annual survival and higher productivity during the previous year. Aside from a possible positive association between survivorship and Common Yellowthroat population growth, productivity and survival rates did not appear to influence population change for other focal species.

California↗
USGS2022

Global dissemination of Influenza A virus is driven by wild bird migration through arctic and subarctic zones

Influenza A viruses (IAV) circulate endemically among many wild aquatic bird populations that seasonally migrate between wintering grounds in southern latitudes to breeding ranges along the perimeter of the circumpolar arctic. Arctic and subarctic zones are hypothesized to serve as ecologic drivers of the intercontinental movement and reassortment of IAVs due to high densities of disparate populations of long distance migratory and native bird species present during breeding seasons. Iceland is a staging ground that connects the East Atlantic and North Atlantic American flyways, providing a unique study system for characterizing viral flow between eastern and western hemispheres. Using Bayesian phylodynamic analyses, we sought to evaluate the viral connectivity of Iceland to proximal regions and how inter-species transmission and reassortment dynamics in this region influence the geographic spread of low and highly pathogenic IAVs. Findings demonstrate that IAV movement in the arctic and subarctic reflects wild bird migration around the perimeter of the circumpolar north, favouring short-distance flights between proximal regions rather than long distance flights over the polar interior. Iceland connects virus movement between mainland Europe and North America, consistent with the westward migration of wild birds from mainland Europe to Northeastern Canada and Greenland. Though virus diffusion rates were similar among avian taxonomic groups in Iceland, gulls play an outsized role as sinks of IAVs from other avian hosts prior to onward migration. These data identify patterns of virus movement in northern latitudes and inform future surveillance strategies related to seasonal and emergent IAVs with potential public health concern.

Molecular Ecology↗
USGS2024

Viral pathogen detection in U.S. game-farm mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) flags spillover risk to wild birds

The threat posed by emerging infectious diseases is a major concern for global public health, animal health and food security, and the role of birds in transmission is increasingly under scrutiny. Each year, millions of mass-reared game-farm birds are released into the wild, presenting a unique and a poorly understood risk to wild and susceptible bird populations, and to human health. In particular, the shedding of enteric pathogens through excrement into bodies of water at shared migratory stop-over sites, and breeding and wintering grounds, could facilitate multi-species long-distance pathogen dispersal and infection of high numbers of naive endemic birds annually. The Mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ) is the most abundant of all duck species, migratory across much of its range, and an important game species for pen-rearing and release. Major recent population declines along the US Atlantic coast has been attributed to game-farm and wild mallard interbreeding and the introduction maladaptive traits into wild populations. However, pathogen transmission and zoonosis among game-farms Mallard may also impact these populations, as well as wildlife and human health. Here, we screened 16 game-farm Mallard from Wisconsin, United States, for enteric viral pathogens using metatranscriptomic data. Four families of viral pathogens were identified – Picobirnaviridae (Genogroup I), Caliciviridae (Duck Nacovirus ), Picornaviridae (Duck Aalivirus ) and Sedoreoviridae (Duck Rotavirus G). To our knowledge, this is the first report of Aalivirus in the Americas, and the first report of Calicivirus outside domestic chicken and turkey flocks in the United States. Our findings highlight the risk of viral pathogen spillover from peri-domestically reared game birds to naive wild bird populations.

Frontiers Earth Science Journal↗
USGS1993

North American Breeding Bird Survey annual summary 1990-1991

The North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) was used to estimate continental and regional changes in bird populations during 1989-1990 and 1990-1991, placing these short-term changes within the context of population trends since 1966. For the entire survey area, 51.7% of the species exhibited increases in population size during 1989-1990, reversing the decreasing tendency exhibited by the majority of species during 1988-1989. A similar percentage (51.4%) of species with increasing populations was noted during 1990-1991. These percentages were also analyzed for 12 guilds of North American birds and 3 broad geographical regions. Many regional patterns exist in these population changes, reflecting the variability inherent in short-term population fluctuations. Two-year (1989-1990 and 1990-1991) changes and long-term (1966-1990) continental trends are provided for 255 species.

Bird Populations↗
USGS2007

The 1999-2003 Summary of the North American Breeding Bird Survey

Data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey were used to estimate continental and regional changes in bird populations for the 5-yr period 1999-2003 and the 2-yr period 2002-2003. These short-term changes were placed in the context of population trends estimated over the 1966-2003 interval. During 1999-2003, 41% of all species exhibited positive trends over the entire survey area, while 64% of all species exhibited positive change between 2002-2003. The continental and regional percentages of species with positive trends were also analyzed for 12 species groups having shared life-history traits. Survey-wide for the entire survey period, grassland birds exhibited the lowest percentage of increasing species (14%), with their sharpest declines occurring in the West during 1999-2003 (10% increasing). During 1999-2003, short-distance migrants experienced significant declines in all regions, where numbers of species with increasing trends ranged from 22% - 34%. Most species fared well during the 2002-2003 period, with 64% (P < 0.05) increasing survey-wide. This was primarily a result of increases in the Central and Western BBS regions where 21 of 24 species groups exhibited significant increases in the number of species with positive trends.

Bird Populations↗
USGS2017

Modeling and the management of migratory birds

Mathematical modeling of migratory bird populations is reviewed in the context of migratory bird management. We focus on dynamic models of waterfowl, since most management-oriented migratory bird models concern waterfowl species. We describe the management context for these modeling efforts, with a focus on large-scale operational data collection programs and on processes by which waterfowl harvest is regulated and waterfowl habitats are protected and managed. Through their impacts on key population parameters such as recruitment and survival rate, these activities can influence population dynamics, thereby providing managers some measure of control over the status of populations. Recent applications of the modeling of waterfowl are described in terms of objectives, mathematical structures, and contributions to management. Finally, we discuss research needs and data limitations in migratory bird modeling, and offer suggestions to increase the value to managers of future modeling efforts.

Natural Resource Modeling↗
USGS2000

The 1995-1999 Summary of the North American Breeding Bird Survey

Data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey were used to estimate continental and regional changes in bird populations for the 5-yr period 1995-1999 and the 2-yr period 1998-1999. These short-term changes were placed in the context of population trends estimated over the 1966-1999 interval. During 1995-1999, 44% of all species exhibited positive trends over the entire survey area, while 44% of all species exhibited positive trends during 1998-1999; neither of these percentages differed significantly from 50%. The continental and regional percentages of species with positive trends were also analyzed for 12 species groups having shared life-history traits. Survey-wide for the entire survey period, grassland birds exhibited the lowest percentage of increasing species (19%). However, during 1995-1999 the declines were less extreme in the Central and Western BBS regions, with 49% and 36% of species increasing in these regions. Neotropical migrants continued to fare better than grassland birds in all regions, although in the Eastern BBS region only 30% of neotropical species had increasing trends during 1995-1999.

Bird Populations↗
USGS1994

The 1992 and 1993 summary of the North American Breeding Bird Survey

Using data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS), continental and regional changes in bird populations were estimated for the 2-year periods of 1991-1992 and 1992-1993. These 2-year changes were placed in the context of population trends since 1966. During 1991-1992, 62% of all species exhibited positive continental trend estimates. For species showing significant population trends, 68 increased while 30 decreased. The percentage of species with positive continental trends was reduced to 45% during 1992-1993, when 39 species exhibited significant increases and 60 experienced significant decreases. Over the entire survey period of 1966-1993, 48% of all species showed positive trend estimates, with the number of species showing significant increases and significant decreases at 94 and 104, respectively. The continental and regional percentages were also analyzed for 12 groups of North American birds having shared life-history traits. While many regional patterns existed within these groups, the largest percentages of increasing species were generally found in the Central and Western BBS regions during 1991-1992. The smallest percentages of increasing species were generally evident in the Western BBS Region during 1992-1993.

Bird Populations↗
USGS2010

The 2003-2008 summary of the North American Breeding Bird Survey

Data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey were used to estimate continental and regional changes in bird populations for the 6-yr period 2003-2008 and the 2-yr period 2007-2008. These short-term changes were placed in the context of population trends estimated over the 1966-2008 interval. Across the entire survey area, a higher proportion of species exhibited positive growth during 2003-2008 (64%) than during the long-term (46%) or the more recent 2-yr-term (39%). The 2003-2008 growth occurred relatively evenly across the Western, Central, and Eastern BBS regions, with 59%, 66%, and 61% of all species increasing, respectively. We additionally evaluated the proportion of species with positive trend estimates in each of 12 life-history based groupings at continental and regional levels. Survey-wide, birds in the grassland guild demonstrated the lowest proportion of positive trends over the entire survey period (21% increasing), with significant declines occurring in both the Eastern and Western regions (5% increasing and 18% increasing, respectively). Birds in the wetland breeding guild exhibited the greatest proportion of positive trends, with a significant number of increasing species (between 77-90%) occurring in all three BBS regions during 2003-2008.

Bird Populations↗
USGS1994

Estimating equations estimates of trends

The North American Breeding Bird Survey monitors changes in bird populations through time using annual counts at fixed survey sites. The usual method of estimating trends has been to use the logarithm of the counts in a regression analysis. It is contended that this procedure is reasonably satisfactory for more abundant species, but produces biased estimates for less abundant species. An alternative estimation procedure based on estimating equations is presented.

Bird Populations↗
USGS1996

The 1994 and 1995 summary of the North American Breeding Bird Survey

Data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey were used to estimate continental and regional changes in bird populations for the 2-year periods of 1993-1994 and 1994-1995. These 2-year changes were placed in the context of population trends estimated over the 1966-1995 interval. The 2-year changes were more positive during the 1993-1994 period, when 54.2% of all species exhibited positive continental trend estimates. This percentage was reduced to 47.7% during 1994-1995, as compared with 50.5% of all species having positive continental trend estimates over then entire survey period. In general, the percentage of increasing species in the Central and Western BBS regions was highest during 1993-1994, with a very marked decline in the Western BBS Region during 1994-1995. The percentage was highest in the Eastern BBS Region during 1994-1995. The continental and regional percentages of species with positive trend estimates were also analyzed for 12 groups of North American birds having shared life-history traits. Over the entire survey period, grassland birds remain the species group with the smallest percentage of increasing species. Trends during these 2-year intervals do not indicate any consistent improvement in the overall declines experienced by grassland birds since the mid-1960s.

Bird Populations↗
USGS1979

Ecological and physiological/toxicological effects of petroleum on aquatic birds: A summary of research activities FY76 through FY78

Oil and gas development and exploration in marine coastal areas and the Great Lakes will result in unavoidable spills of polluting oil. Although large oil spills may kill thousands of birds and stimulate much public concern, the bulk of oil that reaches aquatic environmentS released in the course of normal operations, with a total input into the world's oceans estimated at 6 million metric tons per year. The effects of sublethal low-level oil pollution may be more deleterious to bird populations over the long term than the spectacular bird kills resulting from oil spills. The physiological and ecological effects of oil on waterbirds were examined in a series of laboratory and field experiments, including studies of the effects of oiling on hatchability of eggs; the effects of an oil-contaminated diet on physiological condition, reproduction, and survival; and the accumulation of oil in body tissues. Chemical methodology was developed in support of these studies.

FWS/OBS↗
USGS2011

Design of forest bird monitoring for strategic habitat conservation on Kaua'i Island, Hawai'i

This report was commissioned by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). The purpose was to develop a monitoring program for Kaua`i forest birds in the USFWS Strategic Habitat Conservation and adaptive management frameworks. Monitoring within those frameworks is a tool to assess resource responses to management and conservation actions, and through an iterative learning process improve our understanding of species recovery, effective management, and knowledge gaps. This report provides only the monitoring component of both frameworks, and we apply the monitoring program to the East Alaka`i Protective Fence Project. The East Alaka`i Protective Fence Project is a joint project by the USFWS, State of Hawai`i Division of Forest and Wildlife, Kaua`i Watershed Alliance, and The Nature Conservancy to restore and preserve an 809 ha area of native forest bird habitat through fencing, and ungulate and weed control. The primary purpose of the project is to restore and preserve the habitat that will in turn support abundant and resilient bird populations. This report contains: A monitoring program specifically developed to track bird distribution, density and demography, and habitat for the East Alaka`i Protective Fence Project; A review of the Kaua`i forest bird surveys; A description of the current status and trends of Kaua`i forest birds; An assessment and evaluation of the current surveys; A monitoring program developed to sample bird distribution, density and demography, and habitat at three general levels of spatial scale. Without the management components described in the East Alaka`i Protective Fence Project and the Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds (USFWS 2006) the bird monitoring recommended in this report is little better than surveillance (i.e., monitoring without a link to management). If, however, the proposed management actions are implemented in conjunction with the recommended bird monitoring, then this monitoring program will identify population changes in a timely manner and facilitate identification of the proximate causes of population changes.

Hawaii↗