Geology topics
Source-linked reports with geographic coverage including West Virginia.
Using 3D Elevation Program data, a modern illustration of each State's landscape showcases its elevation differences in vivid detail. Each State has been consistently adjusted and colorized according to its highest and lowest elevations, accentuating differences even in States with low relief. To further emphasize landforms, shaded relief has been added on top of the elevation colors.
The New River Gorge National Park and Preserve in West Virginia receives more than 1 million visitors each year, many of whom come to enjoy the New River, which is known for its whitewater recreation. However, most of the tributaries within the New River Gorge are impaired by fecal-coliform bacteria, which are at concentrations that may exceed recreational-contact standards, posing a potential health risk to the public and, therefore, creating a need to better understand the spatial and temporal distribution of fecal-coliform bacteria and to communicate this information to park visitors. Concentrations of Escherichia coli , a species of fecal-coliform bacteria, were monitored in the New River and selected tributaries from October 2021 through September 2023, with emphasis placed on the primary recreational-contact season from May through October. Composite and cross-sectional water samples were taken from three U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) monitoring locations: the New River at Highway 41 at Prince, West Virginia (USGS 03184905), New River at Thurmond, West Virginia (USGS 03185400; hereafter, Thurmond), and New River at Fayette, West Virginia (USGS 03186000). Periodic longitudinal transects included water samples collected below seven major tributaries of the New River within the gorge. Water-quality parameters, including water temperature, pH, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity, were recorded with each E. coli water sample. During the 2 years of sampling, E. coli concentrations in samples collected from the New River ranged from less than 1 to 1,100 most probable number (MPN) per 100 milliliters (MPN/100 mL). The recreational-contact standard, which is based on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 90th-percentile statistical threshold value for E. coli concentrations (320 MPN/100 mL), was exceeded in 11 of the 110 samples collected from the New River during this study. Water-quality parameter measurements and E. coli concentrations in collected samples were generally consistent among USGS monitoring locations throughout the New River Gorge; however, storm events created notable exceptions because they increased tributary streamflow and E. coli concentrations in samples, particularly at the New River below Piney Creek at McCreery, West Virginia (USGS 03185208), and New River Below Arbuckle Creek at Thurmond, West Virginia (USGS 03185440), monitoring locations. Escherichia coli concentrations of cross-sectional samples tended to be consistent across the New River, except for a few nearshore samples. Sample E. coli concentrations and corresponding measurements of continuous water-quality parameters, streamflow, and precipitation data from Thurmond and the Piney Creek at Raleigh, West Virginia (USGS 03185000; tributary to the New River) monitoring locations were evaluated for use in a near-real-time E. coli surrogate model. The antecedent mean 24-hour turbidity at Thurmond was selected as the best variable for a simple linear regression surrogate model for the log 10 E. coli concentration in the New River and had an adjusted coefficient of determination of 0.556 and a p-value of less than 0.001. The regression equation surrogate model suggests that the recreational-contact standard is exceeded when the antecedent mean 24-hour turbidity at Thurmond is 23.6 formazin nephelometric units or higher (with a 95-percent confidence interval of 19.4–30.7 formazin nephelometric units). Evaluated against a turbidity duration curve, this standard is exceeded 7.5 percent of the time at Thurmond. This surrogate model could help New River Gorge National Park and Preserve staff provide near-real-time information about E. coli concentrations and related recreational-contact risks to the public.
Seven potential sources of water, consisting of free-flowing discharge from abandoned coal mines at six locations and one abandoned flooded underground coal mine air shaft, were sampled for chemical analysis to assess the quality of the groundwater emanating from the seven mine sources. The six free-flowing mine discharge sources were also assessed for discharge by current-meter measurements on two separate occasions. The U.S. Geological Survey assessed these seven sources to provide information to the City of Gary, West Virginia (W. Va.), and the City of Gary’s consulting engineer with groundwater-quality and flow data to allow them to assess the seven sites as potential alternate sources of water for the City of Gary to augment its existing supply. For the six sites where discharge could be measured, discharge ranged from a minimum of 0.082 cubic feet per second (ft 3 /s) to a maximum of 3.685 ft 3 /s. Of the six sites measured, only two, Harmon Branch at Thorpe, W. Va. (USGS site 372201081303501) and the abandoned public-supply water wells near Havaco, W. Va. (USGS site 372358081344601), had discharge in excess of 1.00 ft 3 /s. Discharge from the abandoned public supply wells was 3.685 ft 3 /s on September 20, 2023, and 2.888 ft 3 /s on October 16, 2023, and discharge from Harmon Branch at Thorpe, W. Va., was 1.049 ft 3 /s on September 22, 2023, and 1.038 ft 3 /s on October 17, 2023. Discharge in the abandoned underground mine air shaft (USGS site 372224081340901) could not be assessed, but the air shaft drains an abandoned mine that likely contains water stored in approximately 1.7 square miles (mi 2 ) of abandoned underground coal mines in the Pocahontas No. 3 coal seam, and possibly an additional 0.9 mi 2 of leakage from the overlying Pocahontas No. 4 coal seam. Discharge for the six sites measured for the study was measured during a period between September 20 and October 18, 2023, and corresponded to the 12th to the 15th percentile of flow-duration statistics for the Tug Fork downstream of Elkhorn Creek at Welch, W. Va. streamgage (USGS site 03212750). Water-quality data for the seven sites sampled overall were acceptable with respect to drinking water standards. Of the 203 constituents analyzed, only a few failed to meet applicable U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) drinking water standards. Iron exceeded the 300 micrograms per liter (μg/L) secondary maximum contaminant level (SMCL) at only 1 of the 7 sites (14.3 percent) sampled. Iron concentrations ranged from a minimum of less than (<) 5.00 μg/L to a maximum of 724 μg/L with a median concentration of 7.62 μg/L. Manganese exceeded the 50.0 μg/L SMCL at 2 of the 7 sites (28.6 percent) sampled. Manganese concentrations ranged from a minimum of 1.93 μg/L to a maximum of 271 μg/L with a median concentration of 4.03 μg/L. No sites sampled exceeded the arsenic maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10 μg/L. Arsenic concentrations ranged from a minimum of <0.100 μg/L to a maximum of 2.35 μg/L with a median arsenic concentration of 0.200 μg/L. None of the seven sites sampled for selenium for this study exceeded the EPA MCL of 50.0 μg/L. Selenium concentrations ranged from a minimum of <0.050 μg/L to a maximum of 5.26 μg/L with a median concentration of 3.21 μg/L. All seven sites were sampled for volatile organic compounds (VOCs), semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), but most had concentrations below the detection limit. Of the 10 PCB compounds analyzed for the seven sites sampled, none contained detectable concentrations of PCBs or Aroclor compounds. Of the 44 SVOCs analyzed at each of the seven sites sampled, only 1 SVOC, acenaphthene, was detected, at a concentration of 0.02 μg/L. Of the 96 VOCs analyzed, from each of the seven sites sampled, only two were found at detectable concentrations. Trichloromethane was detected only at 1 of the 7 (14.3 percent) sites sampled at a concentration of 0.027 μg/L, and benzene was detected at the same site and 3 additional sites (4 of the 7 sites or 57.1 percent of the sites sampled) at concentrations of 0.028, 0.029, 0.021, and 0.035 μg/L, but none exceeded the EPA MCL for benzene of 5.00 μg/L. Total coliform bacteria are ubiquitous in the environment, and their presence only suggests the potential for contamination by near-surface processes. Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) bacteria are derived from either human or animal fecal material and can be an indicator of potential contamination by pathogenic bacteria or viruses. Total coliform bacteria were detected at all 7 sites sampled at concentrations ranging from 17.5 to greater than (>) 2,420 most probable number per 100 mL (MPN/100 mL) of sample, with a median total coliform concentration of 1,553 MPN/100 mL. Escherichia coli bacteria were detected at 4 of the 7 sites sampled at concentrations ranging from <1 to 11.9 MPN/100 mL, with a median E. coli concentration of 5.1 MPN/100 mL.
Surface coal mining and subsequent reclamation efforts in the Appalachian Mountains, USA, transform the ecological characteristics of natural landscapes. The Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA) is a mine reclamation method that emphasizes best management practices in forestry. FRA practices have demonstrated success in establishing native forests and accelerating natural succession on coal mines; however, no studies have empirically examined the effects of the FRA on bird communities. Our study aimed to assess the avian community composition within young forests reclaimed using the FRA after one decade of forest growth. Whereas traditional reclamation practices often support grassland avian guilds, we expected that the FRA would provide habitat for shrubland and young forest avian guilds. Moreover, we sought to determine whether FRA forests would contain known avian indicator species of the native forest land cover. In June 2022, we conducted point count surveys in high-elevation, red spruce-northern hardwood (RS-NH) forests in the Appalachian Mountains of eastern West Virginia, USA. Using Bayesian multispecies occupancy models, we assessed avian guild occupancy and species richness within two FRA forest age classes (2–5 years and 8–11 years). We also examined avian community composition within two older RS-NH reference age classes to predict the future avian composition within FRA forests if reclamation succeeds. We found that the FRA breeding bird community included all of the avian indicator species expected to inhabit a young RS-NH forest. These results suggest that after approximately one decade, legacy mines reclaimed using the FRA are progressing toward a native RS-NH forest that supports associated forest bird communities.
Freshwater mussels are among the most sensitive species to a variety of chemicals in water exposures. However, few studies have been conducted to evaluate the effect of toxicants in sediments on mussels. Industrial discharges containing polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and metals entered the Kanawha River surrounding Blaine Island, South Charleston, West Virginia, USA; a river which supports eight federally endangered mussel species. We collected sediment samples from a highly contaminated site, a nearby upstream site, and a further upstream reference site to assess the effects of contaminated sediment on the survival and growth of a unionid mussel (fatmucket, Lampsilis siliquoidea ) and a commonly tested benthic organism (amphipod, Hyalella azteca ) using standard 28-d sediment toxicity tests. We also determined mussel toxicity in a serial dilution of the highly contaminated sediment. Results showed that concentrations of PAHs, VOCs, and metals in the contaminated sediment were consistently greater than the other two sites. The mean survival of mussels and amphipods in the reference sediment was 100% and 95%, respectively, whereas the mean survival of both test species in the contaminated sediment was 0%. In the sediment dilution study, mean survival and biomass of mussels in the ≥6.25% treatment were significantly reduced relative to the control, with a 25% inhibition concentration of 4.1% for survival and 3.6% for biomass. We used sediment screening values and equilibrium partitioning sediment benchmarks to determine that nickel, mercury, and PAH mixture were likely responsible for the toxicity observed to mussels and amphipods and will provide critical data to identify and mitigate the sources of the mixture in contaminated sediment.
Bedrock aquifers cover 23,601 square miles within the State of West Virginia and comprise 97.4 percent of the surficial area within the State; the remaining 2.6 percent (621 square miles) consists of alluvial sand-and-gravel and glacial outwash aquifers bordering the State’s major rivers. While West Virginia’s alluvial aquifers have been studied extensively, bedrock aquifers have only been characterized for studies completed in a few areas in Jefferson, McDowell, and Monroe Counties. Bedrock aquifers are water supplies for public supply, agriculture, industry, and residential homeowner use. In this study, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection Division of Water and Waste Management, provides a statewide assessment of the occurrence and distribution of fractures within bedrock aquifers of the State and the various topographic, physiographic, and lithologic influences controlling the occurrence and distribution of bedrock fractures. The results of this study provide an increased understanding of the distribution of fractures in bedrock aquifers in West Virginia and help to verify trends that have been suspected for many years but were never well documented or verified by data. The results confirmed that the density of fractures and those that were determined to be water bearing decrease significantly with depth. A statistically significant difference in the density of fractures was observed at a depth of 215 feet for wells in the Appalachian Plateaus Physiographic Province’s and in the Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province’s aquifers; a higher density of fractures and water-bearing fractures were above a depth of 215 feet than below that depth. This is an important consideration when drilling wells for residential, commercial, industrial, or agricultural water supply. Abandoned underground coal mines are commonly believed to form large pools of water in the interconnected mine entries in abandoned room and pillar coal mines. Such pools of water can and do exist in abandoned underground coal mines, but many mines lack open entries and are held up by overburden strata and pillars that can collapse and form aquifers comprised of vast interconnected rubble zones (gob), especially in older mines. Data assessed for this study showed that shale-corrected values of effective porosity for limestone aquifers in West Virginia had a median value of 2 percent and an average value of 4 percent and generally are mineralized with low effective porosity. Argillaceous or sandy limestone has a median shale-corrected porosity of 4 percent and an average shale-corrected porosity of 5 percent. The median and average shale-corrected porosity of sandstone aquifers was estimated to be 14 percent, but the median shale-corrected porosity for argillaceous or calcareous sandstone was 5 percent and the average shale-corrected porosity for argillaceous or calcareous sandstone was 6 percent. Even though shale has a relatively high total sonic porosity compared to other lithologies, shale and siltstone had relatively low shale-corrected porosity, ranging from 0 to 2 percent. Well yields were previously documented to be highest in valley settings, lowest on hilltops, and intermediate on hillsides. Transmissivity data provided by this study confirm this general pattern within the Appalachian Plateaus Province; however, the Valley and Ridge Province does not follow this pattern. While still lowest on hilltop settings, the highest well yields were in hillside settings. The trend for the Valley and Ridge Province was likely skewed because of 9 high-yield wells specifically targeting deeper thin limestone units, such as the Tonoloway and Helderberg Limestones, at depths with transmissivity in excess of 2,000 feet squared per day in Mineral County, West Virginia, or targeting karst aquifers in Berkeley, Jefferson, or Greenbrier Counties, West Virginia. Finally, water-bearing fractures have been hypothesized to comprise a small number of all fractures within a typical bedrock well in West Virginia. Data collected for this study support this theory. A total of 3,403 fractures were identified during this study; 3,151 (92.6 percent) of those fractures are low-transmissive, and only 252 (7.4 percent) fractures are water-bearing. Even though a well may contain many fractures, less than 8 percent are considered water-bearing fractures.
Cambarus chasmodactylus (New River Crayfish) is one of the largest crayfish species occurring in the Appalachian Mountains and occupies a niche similar to several highly imperiled crayfishes within the same region. While conducting a controlled mesocosm study assessing the impacts of contaminants on crayfish growth, development, and reproductive status, we recorded an observation where New River Crayfish neonates clustered around the head of an untreated, reference maternal crayfish after molting. This neonate head-clustering behavior did not appear to impact the female during the 3-week period the behavior was observed. Further observations are needed to determine if this behavior occurs across other crayfish species, and if it is displayed outside of captive conditions.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Transportation, Division of Highways, compared time of concentration (T c ) and related runoff characteristics measured at four field sites in West Virginia to estimates of these values made using accepted methods. These four sites were selected to represent a range of basin size, length, and slope, and a range of estimated T c . Instrumentation included a rain gage and a streamgage at all sites. Two streamgages, USGS station number (no.) 03159718 Grasslick Creek tributary above Interstate 77 near Fairplain, West Virginia, (referred to as Fairplain in this report) and USGS station no. 03159823 Grass Run tributary above Interstate 77 near Ripley, W. Va., (referred to as Ripley in this report) were near each other in northwestern West Virginia at the outlets of small basins with moderate slope. The largest, longest, and flattest basin in the study was upstream from USGS station no. 03190307 Hedricks Creek Tributary above US–19 near Hico, W. Va. (Hico). The final gaged basin in the study, that of USGS station no. 03197062 Cookman Fork at Interstate 79 near Wallback, W. Va., (Wallback) in central West Virginia, had a drainage area nearly as large as Hico, but the basin was more compact. Precipitation and streamflow data were collected at the streamgages between October 2017 and July 2020. Storms were identified and classified through an iterative process relying on inspecting graphs created from the precipitation and streamflow data. Three hydrograph time metrics that represent T c were computed for this study: time to rise, time to recede from a high point on the hydrograph to an inflection on the recession, and the time between an inflection on the hyetograph and an inflection on the recession of the hydrograph (precipitation inflection to recession inflection or PI-to-RI). Hico had the slowest time metrics: the streamgage had an average T c of 34 and 32 minutes for time to rise and time to recede, respectively. The time between the PI-to-RI at Hico, 38 minutes, was the longest for any of the characteristics at any of the streamgages. Wallback had the second slowest time metrics. At Wallback, average T c for time to rise and time to recede was similar, 23 and 25 minutes, respectively. The average time between the PI-to-RI for Wallback was greater than its time to rise or time to recede, 32 minutes. At Fairplain and Ripley, time to rise was 18 and 19 minutes, time to recede was 14 and 16 minutes, and time between the PI-to-RI was 22 and 27 minutes, respectively. At Ripley, PI-to-RI and time to rise were significantly different from each other. Differences in metrics were not statistically significant (p ≤0.05) among streamgages. At all streamgages, predictions made with the “Rational Method” were within one average standard deviation of the overall mean T c . The Rational Method was applied following two different procedures— (1) channel geometry was estimated using professional judgment and (2) channel geometry estimates were adjusted using regional equations. The three different time metrics had an inconsistent relation with the estimates. Some of the predictions differed from individual hydrograph time metrics by more than one standard deviation. Predicted values for the 10-year storm were within the interquartile range (IQR) for 4 of 12 combinations of streamgages and time metrics. Adjusted T c predictions were within the IQR of PI-to-RI for Fairplain and Wallback, longer than the IQR of observed PI-to-RI at Hico, and shorter than the IQR of observed PI-to-RI at Ripley. The adjusted predictions of T c were within the IQR of time-to-rise for Hico and Fairplain and were longer than the IQR for Ripley and Wallback. At Ripley, the predictions were not within the IQR for either PI-to-RI or time to rise, but instead, were between them. These lines of evidence do not indicate large, systematic errors in T c estimates.
The Paddlefish ( Polyodon spathula ), a large-bodied and highly migratory species of large river systems, has experienced population declines or extirpation in parts of its native range. As an effort to reestablish a Paddlefish population in the Ohio River of West Virginia, the West Virginia Division of Natural Resources has stocked fingerling Paddlefish in the previous two decades. Post-stocking studies could assess the status of the reintroduced population, which includes collecting information on their seasonal movements and dam passage frequency through navigation dams of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers. Using acoustic telemetry techniques, we monitored seasonal movements and assessed dam passage of five Paddlefish in the Robert C. Byrd Pool of the Ohio and Kanawha rivers. Paddlefish were highly mobile with two individuals using the entire R.C. Byrd Pool during the 11-month study period. Most movements occurred during the expected spawning period of April and May, where all individuals frequented the upper section of the pool in the Kanawha River. Downstream passage was documented for one individual at the R.C. Byrd lock during July 2023, but no evidence of upstream passage was documented for the locks at Racine (Ohio River) or Winfield (Kanawha River). Tagging of additional Paddlefish would be beneficial to increase sample size for future assessments and continue efforts toward the long-term conservation and management of Ohio River Paddlefish.
In a laboratory experiment, we quantified microhabitat use of small yellow-phase American eels ( Anguilla rostrata , n = 130, 224–338 mm TL) conditional on five benthic substrate types common to rivers within their geographic range. During nine, 4-day trials replicated with three aquaria, American eels were given a choice to burrow into five equally available benthic substrates: cobble (90–256 mm), gravel (4–16 mm), sand (0.125–1 mm), silt/clay (< 0.0625 mm), and leaf pack. Five American eels were used per aquarium for each trial, and individuals were used one time only. All eels were injected with PIT tags prior to the study, which allowed for determination of lengths and otolith-based ages of each individual following each trial. Leaf pack was selected with a significantly higher probability than other substrates (63 of 130 individuals). However, other substrates were also used (cobble, 21 of 130; silt/clay, 18 of 130; gravel, 16 of 130; and sand, 12 of 130). Length and age covariates were not associated with substrate selection. Selection of leaf pack habitat supports the importance of forested riparian zones and terrestrial organic material to yellow-phase American eels in riverine systems.
Habitat restoration and creation within human-altered landscapes can buffer the impacts of climate change on wildlife. The Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA) is a coal surface mine reclamation practice that enhances reforestation through soil decompaction and the planting of native trees. Recently, wetland creation has been coupled with FRA to increase habitat available for wildlife, including amphibians. Our objective was to evaluate the response of pond-breeding amphibians to the FRA by comparing species occupancy, richness, and abundance across two FRA age-classes (2–5-year and 8–11-year reclaimed forests), traditionally reclaimed sites that were left to naturally regenerate after mining, and in mature, unmined forests in the Monongahela National Forest (West Virginia, USA). We found that species richness and occupancy estimates did not differ across treatment types. Spotted Salamanders ( Ambystoma maculatum ) and Eastern Newts ( Notophthalmus viridescens ) had the greatest estimated abundances in wetlands in the older FRA treatment. Additionally, larger wetlands had greater abundances of Eastern Newts, Wood Frogs ( Lithobates sylvaticus ), and Green Frogs ( L. clamitans ) compared to smaller wetlands. Our results suggest that wetland creation and reforestation increases the number of breeding sites and promotes microhabitat and microclimate conditions that likely maximize the resilience of pond-breeding amphibians to anticipated climate changes in the study area.
The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources, studied surface-water-influenced groundwater supplies in the Ohio River alluvial aquifer of West Virginia for the purpose of understanding the influence of surface water on groundwater chemistry. Public groundwater supplies obtained from these aquifers receive substantial recharge from surface-water sources and are highly susceptible to degradation from water-soluble contaminants. Water samples were collected from 4 sites in the Ohio River and 23 groundwater wells in the alluvial aquifer from June 2019 to January 2020. Surface-water influence was assessed through characterization of groundwater quality, determination of recharge sources, estimation of groundwater age, and estimation of the fraction of Ohio River water entering groundwater pumped by wells in the alluvial aquifers. Hydrogeochemical processes controlling solute concentrations in the Ohio River alluvial aquifer were evaluated with multivariate statistical analysis and identified to be primarily controlled by redox processes, input from sources of salinity, and carbonate dissolution. Meteoric recharge from the Ohio River and precipitation on the alluvium are the main sources of water entering the aquifer. The age of groundwater in the system was determined to be primarily from a modern source. Groundwater samples from every well included in this study had detections for at least one geochemical indicator of surface-water influence, and every well was determined to be susceptible and vulnerable to contamination from surface sources. Results from binary mixing models and inverse geochemical models showed that sulfate, silica, and bicarbonate concentrations predict the fraction of Ohio River water entering alluvial wells for preliminary determination of surface-water influence when compared to fractions predicted using a numerical groundwater-flow model. In the absence of extensive analytes and geochemical or groundwater modeling capabilities, preliminary assessment of the fraction of Ohio River water entering groundwater wells in the Ohio River alluvium can be estimated for most sites using a linear relation between the equivalent ratio of bicarbonate to sulfate and the fraction of water computed by the average of the three geochemical models presented in this report. This approximation of the fraction of Ohio River water, coupled with information on the hydrogeological framework and geochemical indicators of surface-water influence, may be sufficient for preliminary assessment of surface-water influence in the absence of more detailed site information or reaction-transport models.
The management and conservation of faunas at regional scales depend on current data on species diversity and distribution. Relative to the ichthyofauna of West Virginia, few studies have recently documented the richness and distribution of fishes in the state, with even the most comprehensive publications rarely discussing either the conservation status of individual fishes or historical sportfish stockings. In this paper, we review the state's historic sportfish stockings. We also clarify inconsistent published data and present new information for several species, delete 3 species from the West Virginia ichthyofaunal list, and add 35 species representing extant or extirpated populations. Lastly, we provide a checklist of 195 species by major drainage of West Virginia's fishes, including their origin (i.e., native or introduced).
Monroe County is in southeastern West Virginia, encompassing an area of 474 square miles. The area consists of karst and siliciclastic aquifers of Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Mississippian age and is in parts of two physiographic provinces: the Valley and Ridge Province to the east of Peters Mountain, and the Appalachian Plateau Province to the west of Peters Mountain. This study was developed in response to inquiries from the Monroe County Commission requesting assessment of the water resources of the county to better understand the quantity of the county’s groundwater resources, for both current [2023] and future demand, and to provide information to support protection and management of the county’s valuable groundwater resources. Various products were developed for this study that provide knowledge with respect to water availability and contamination susceptibility of the karst aquifers within the county. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) geologists conducted extensive geologic mapping in support of the project, producing (1) a countywide bedrock geologic map, (2) a countywide hydrogeologic map, and (3) a light detection and ranging (lidar)-derived countywide digital elevation model and associated sinkhole map. A significant part of this work was to map in detail the Greenbrier Group at the formation level, which prior to this study had only partially been completed. The report also includes (4) a description of the lithologic units identified as part of the geologic mapping process. U.S. Geological Survey hydrologists completed several additional products for the hydrology part of the effort, including development of (1) a countywide potentiometric surface (water-table) map, (2) a countywide base-flow stream assessment, (3) countywide water-budget estimates, (4) well log surveys for 15 wells to better understand subsurface controls on groundwater flow within the study area, (5) two groundwater tracer tests to better refine the groundwater divide from the northern and southern parts of the karst aquifer in Monroe County; and finally, based on all available data collected for the study including the potentiometric surface map, geologic map, current [2023] and legacy fluorometric groundwater tracer tests, and base-flow stream assessments, (6) groundwater-basin delineations were reassessed for principal groundwater basins within the Greenbrier aquifer. In Monroe County, four principal hydrogeologic settings produce large yields of water for residential, agricultural, and other uses. The most relied upon water-bearing zone with respect to current [2023] public water supply is from springs along Peters Mountain. These springs are derived from intervals of fractured sandstone and resultant alluvial deposits. Groundwater flows downslope through these permeable alluvial deposits and discharges at the contact with less permeable strata, such as the Reedsville Shale. The second most relied upon water-bearing zone in Monroe County is within the karstic Greenbrier Group aquifer, in which the basal Hillsdale Limestone overlies the less permeable Maccrady Shale. This geologic contact between the Hillsdale Limestone and Maccrady Shale is not only targeted as a source of water for agricultural supply but also is targeted as a source of water for residential supply. The third most relied upon water-bearing zone is composed of shallow perched aquifers within the Greenbrier Group. The discontinuous nature of these perched aquifers makes mapping their extent impossible, but they are related to permeable geologic strata, such as karstified limestones with solutionally enhanced permeability that overlies less permeable shale or chert bedrock. During geologic mapping of the county, several of these perched aquifers were documented in the Pickaway, Union, and Alderson Limestones. A fourth zone consists of springs from Ordovician carbonates at the base of Peters Mountain, which are influenced by sinking streams as well as upwelling along faults. In terms of water quantity, the most sustainable springs are those having deeper-sourced flows. Public supplies are a principal source of water used for residential and commercial supply in the region, accounting for 0.49 million gallons per day (Mgal/d) of fresh-water withdrawals (0.14 Mgal/d of groundwater and 0.35 Mgal/d of surface water) for residential and commercial use and serving 6,645 individuals (49.2 percent of the population). An estimated 6,861 people, (50.8 percent of the population) primarily rely on private wells or other unregulated sources, such as springs, and withdraw 0.55 Mgal/d of groundwater for their residential use. Public water supply in the region is primarily (71.4 percent) derived from springs and augmented by stream withdrawals (backup sources mainly during low-flow periods), with the remaining portion (28.6 percent) derived from groundwater withdrawals from wells. For rural residents, however, 100 percent of their withdrawals are derived from groundwater (wells or springs).
Abandoned underground coal mine aquifers cover a large part of West Virginia and could supply substantial quantities of water for agricultural, industrial, residential, and public use. Several Federal, State, and academic institutions have studied the availability and quality of water stored in abandoned underground coal mine aquifers for a variety of applications, such as economic development, geothermal energy, aquaculture, and wastewater disposal. However, the spatial and stratigraphic controls on water quality produced from abandoned underground coal mine aquifers are still poorly constrained on a state-wide basis. In response to these knowledge gaps, the U.S. Geological Survey initiated a study, in cooperation with the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection, to understand the applicability of using existing secondary source data for understanding water quality in abandoned underground coal mine aquifers across the State. Results from the calculation of net alkalinity indicated that Upper Pennsylvanian coal beds primarily produce net acidic waters and Lower Pennsylvanian coal beds primarily produce net alkaline waters. Multivariate statistical analysis of elemental data supports the conclusion that abandoned underground coal mine aquifers in the northern part of the State generally produce poor water quality and abandoned underground coal mine aquifers in southern West Virginia primarily produce good water quality. These results substantiate the potential benefits of leveraging abandoned underground coal mine aquifers as a multifaceted resource in West Virginia and can be used as a reconnaissance tool for water managers to characterize abandoned underground coal mine aquifers on a local scale.
Water withdrawn from rivers and streams accounts for approximately 80 percent of the public water supply in West Virginia. Localized and (or) seasonal droughts may threaten future water availability in the state, particularly in rural communities located in the headwaters of unregulated watersheds. Monthly water withdrawal data obtained from the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection’s Large Quantity User program’s regulatory database was used to calculate all-time, seasonal, and monthly 75th quantile withdrawal rates for 109 public water system (PWS) intakes withdrawing from surface waters in West Virginia. A drought-vulnerability assessment value was calculated by comparing PWS withdrawal rates to the 1-day, 10-year hydrologically based streamflow statistic (1Q10) for 71 of the 109 PWS in locations with valid streamflow statistics. Withdrawal rates were evaluated against thresholds representing different levels of drought-related impacts from the West Virginia interagency drought plan and ecological-flow literature. The drought-vulnerability assessment found 33 of 71 PWS have 75th quantile withdrawal rates greater than 100 percent of 1Q10 streamflow. Forty-five of 71 PWS have 75th quantile withdrawal rates more than 10 percent of 1Q10 streamflow, suggesting some level of ecological impairment during severe drought. Additionally, a publicly available, near real-time drought-awareness web tool was created to compare the estimated withdrawal rate for 109 PWS to forecast streamflows from the National Water Model to support decision-making for emergency and water managers.
The effects of timber harvest on amphibians can be complex and persist for years postharvest, but overall they are poorly understood. We examined how timber harvest has impacted two pool-breeding species, Spotted Salamander ( Ambystoma maculatum ) and Wood Frog ( Lithobates sylvaticus ), across the Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge, West Virginia, USA. We surveyed Spotted Salamanders and Wood Frogs at 49 pools from 2004 to 2016. Pools in recently harvested tracts tended to be smaller and less likely to hold water than pools in unharvested tracts for the duration of the breeding period. For both species, mean egg mass abundance was lower in harvested tracts than in the unharvested tracts, and over time declined substantially for Wood Frogs. Similarly, occupancy rates were lower in harvested sites for the duration of the study for both species. Occupancy rates declined over time for both species across all sites; this decline was steeper for Wood Frogs in harvested sites. Our results show the importance of long-term landscape-level studies when evaluating the effects of habitat disturbance. Understanding how forest loss and degradation impact pool-breeding amphibians will help to develop better management targets and mitigate compounding factors of decline to promote survival of these species.
The response of stream ecosystems to climate change will depend in part on groundwater processes that reduce the sensitivity of streams to atmospheric conditions. We investigated the thermal sensitivity of streams across a gradient of groundwater inputs defined by karst terrain (carbonate parent materials) in the headwaters of the Potomac River basin in eastern North America. We collected stream temperature data and quantified thermal sensitivity for 30 sites from the relationship between daily mean water and air temperatures. Our analysis demonstrates that thermal sensitivity is lower for streams in karst terrain than elsewhere, and that the effect of karst terrain is more important than effects of elevation or basin size in this regard. Our study indicates the importance of karstic groundwater for stream thermal resiliency and suggests the importance of riparian vegetation for maintaining stream temperatures elsewhere. Our study also provides a simple and rapid method for climate change research that can be implemented in conjunction with watershed organizations and citizen science networks.