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Research about Vermont

Source-linked reports with geographic coverage including Vermont.

At least 37 records · Page 2Linked to original sources
USGS2022

Using dissolved organic matter fluorescence to predict total mercury and methylmercury in forested headwater streams, Sleepers River, Vermont USA

Aqueous transport of mercury (Hg) across the landscape is closely linked to dissolved organic matter (DOM). Both quantity and quality of DOM affect Hg mobility, as well as the formation and transport of toxic methylmercury (MeHg), but only a limited number of field studies have investigated Hg and MeHg with respect to specific DOM components. We investigated these interactions at the 41-ha forested W-9 catchment at Sleepers River, Vermont, which has a long history of mercury and other biogeochemical research. We examined spatial and temporal patterns of filtered Hg fractions and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration, DOM quality, and major solutes at 12 stream sites within W-9 and the downstream W-3 gage (837 ha) over five sampling campaigns including a large (79 mm) fall storm, spring snowmelt, and three seasonally contrasting base flow periods. Filtered total Hg (THg), MeHg, and DOC concentrations increased in order base flow < snowmelt < fall storm, except that MeHg remained at baseflow levels during snowmelt. Ranges of median concentrations across sites for the five campaigns were THg, <0.2–4.1 ng L −1 ; MeHg, <0.03–0.45 ng L −1 ; and DOC, 0.8–14.0 mg L −1 . Humic-like DOM fluorescence components, as determined by parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC), dominated the fluorescence across sites and sampling campaigns. THg correlated strongly ( r > 0.94) with these humic components, but even more strongly with bulk DOC and absorbance at 254 nm (UV 254 ; r > 0.96), and less strongly with protein-like DOM (0.7 < r < 0.9). MeHg correlated in the same order but less strongly with humic- (0.8 < r < 0.9) and protein-like (0.6 < r < 0.8) DOM. MeHg increased in summer, potentially in response to enhanced microbial production in warmer periods. MeHg formation may have been linked to protein-like DOM, but its transport was linked to humic-like DOM.

Vermont↗
USGS2022

Hydrology and biogeochemistry datasets from Sleepers River Research Watershed, Danville, Vermont, USA

The Sleepers River Research Watershed (SRRW) in Danville, Vermont, USA, was established in 1957 by the U.S Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (ARS). The 111-km 2 area was selected as a representative mixed-land-use upland landscape in the northeastern USA, with the objective to study fundamental hydrological processes. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) currently operates SRRW and is the fourth federal agency to lead it. SRRW has hosted historic research on snowmelt modelling and streamflow generation processes, and USGS has augmented this hydrological foundation with biogeochemical cycling research. This data note describes five freely available data releases in stable repositories, extending to the late 2010s, from the indicated start date: aqueous chemistry and isotopes (1991); precipitation, water temperature, and streamflow (1991); groundwater levels (1991); ground frost depth (1983); and snow depth and water equivalent (1960). USGS research at SRRW is expected to continue, and we plan to update these releases every 1–3 years.

Vermont↗
USGS2022

Streams as mirrors: Reading subsurface water chemistry from stream chemistry

The shallow and deep hypothesis suggests that stream concentration-discharge (CQ) relationships are shaped by distinct source waters from different depths. Under this hypothesis, baseflows are typically dominated by groundwater and mostly reflect groundwater chemistry, whereas high flows are typically dominated by shallow soil water and mostly reflect soil water chemistry. Aspects of this hypothesis draw on applications like end member mixing analyses and hydrograph separation, yet direct data support for the hypothesis remains scarce. This work tests the shallow and deep hypothesis using co-located measurements of soil water, groundwater, and streamwater chemistry at two intensively monitored sites, the W-9 catchment at Sleepers River (Vermont, United States) and the Hafren catchment at Plynlimon (Wales). At both sites, depth profiles of subsurface water chemistry and stream CQ relationships for the 10 solutes analyzed are broadly consistent with the hypothesis. Solutes that are more abundant at depth (e.g., calcium) exhibit dilution patterns (concentration decreases with increasing discharge). Conversely, solutes enriched in shallow soils (e.g., nitrate) generally exhibit flushing patterns (concentration increases with increasing discharge). The hypothesis may hold broadly true for catchments that share such biogeochemical stratifications in the subsurface. Soil water and groundwater chemistries were estimated from high- and low-flow stream chemistries with average relative errors ranging from 24% to 82%. This indicates that streams mirror subsurface waters: stream chemistry can be used to infer scarcely measured subsurface water chemistry, especially where there are distinct shallow and deep end members.

Vermont↗
USGS2022

Multi-run migratory behavior of adult male lake sturgeon in a short river

Lake sturgeon ( Acipenser fulvescens ) can migrate long distances to spawn, but many populations currently spawn in systems where the length of accessible riverine migratory habitat has been greatly reduced by dam construction. With the increased prevalence of shortened rivers, focusing on migratory dynamics in short rivers (<30 km) is beneficial to understanding the migratory needs of lake sturgeon populations. Here we document male lake sturgeon movements during the spawning period in the Winooski River, Vermont, USA; a river with only 17 km to the first natural upstream barrier. Male lake sturgeon were acoustically tagged (n = 25, 1215–1470 mm TL) and tracked using five to nine stationary receivers from 2017 to 2019. River discharge, temperature, the lagged effect of temperature (3-day), and time of day were significant factors describing upstream movements of tagged fish. Migrating male lake sturgeon (n = 10 in 2017, n = 18 in 2018, and n = 17 in 2019) displayed general movement patterns during the spawning period that included a single run upstream to the spawning site (60%), upstream and downstream movements throughout the river during the season (20%), or multiple runs made up the entire length of the spawning tributary to the spawning site (20%). No multi-run males were observed during 2018 when discharge was less flashy (i.e., fewer steep increases and declines in discharge) than in 2017 and 2019. These results suggest that the prevalence of multi-run spawning behavior of male lake sturgeon is related to flow conditions.

Vermont↗
USGS2022

A systematic increase in the slope of the concentration discharge relation for dissolved organic carbon in a forested catchment in Vermont, USA

The production, mobilization and fluvial transport of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in temperate forests are important components of the carbon cycle that are influenced by ongoing changes in climate. Numerous studies have reported temporal trends in stream water DOC concentrations and have attributed changes in concentrations to climatic and hydrologic variables. Fewer studies have reported trends in concentration-discharge (C-Q) relations for DOC. The goal of this study was to detect and quantify changes in DOC concentration and slope of the C-Q relation from 1991 to 2018 in an intensively sampled forested research watershed in northern Vermont. Stream water DOC concentration and slope of the C-Q relation increased over time as did precipitation, stream discharge, and air temperature. The increases in DOC concentration and slope of the C-Q were substantially greater in the summer and fall (autumn) than in winter and spring. The largest increases in the magnitude of C-Q slopes occurred in the December, October and September. The increases in slope of the C-Q relation in summer and fall were larger for baseflow than for storm flow. The increases in DOC concentration and slope of the C-Q relation over time may be related to increasing temperature, longer growing seasons, and associated increases in production and microbial decomposition of soil organic matter that supplies DOC for mobilization to streams. The results suggest that in a changing climate, C-Q relations may not necessarily be stationary and therefore analyses that attempt to estimate future DOC concentrations and loads should consider potentially changing C-Q relations over time

Vermont↗
USGS2022

Combining fixed-location count data and movement data to estimate abundance of a lake sturgeon spawning run

Estimating abundance of migrating fishes is challenging. While sonars can be deployed continuously, improper assumptions about unidirectional migration and complete spatial coverage can lead to inaccurate estimates. To address these challenges, we present a framework for combining fixed-location count data from a dual-frequency identification sonar (DIDSON) with movement data from acoustic telemetry to estimate spawning run abundance of lake sturgeon ( Acipenser fulvescens ). Acoustic telemetry data were used to estimate the probability of observing a lake sturgeon on the DIDSON and to determine the probability that a lake sturgeon passing the DIDSON site had passed the site previously during the season. Combining probabilities with DIDSON counts, using a Bayesian integrated model, we estimated the following abundances: 99 (42–215 credible interval, CI) in 2017, 131 (82–248 CI) in 2018, and 92 (47–184 CI) in 2019. Adding movement data generated better inferences on count data by incorporating fish behavior (e.g., multiple migrations in a single season) and its uncertainty into abundance estimates. This framework can be applied to count and movement data to estimate abundance of spawning runs of other migratory fishes in riverine systems.

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USGS2021

Hydrology on high: Assessing the effect of ski resort expansion and changing climate at the Mount Mansfield paired-catchment study in Vermont, USA

A paired-catchment study began in 2000 to assess the hydrologic effects of high-elevation development on Mt. Mansfield, Vermont's highest summit (1340 m). West Branch Little River drains 12.08 km 2 and encompasses a large ski resort. Adjacent Ranch Brook drains 9.83 km 2 of minimally disturbed second-growth forest. The two catchments have similar elevation, aspect, surficial and bedrock geology, and vegetation. The resort was well established before this study, but it underwent a major expansion during the period 2004–2008. The expansion included new ski lifts and trails, a large hotel, roads and second home development, a 435 000-m 3 snowmaking storage pond and a nine-hole golf course, increasing the extent of cleared/open land from 17% to 24%. Runoff from the developed West Branch Little River catchment was 21% greater than Ranch Brook over the duration of the study, but varied widely each year from 10% to 42%. This high variability occurs both on the interannual and individual storm scales, and is consistent with expectations from future climate projections. Hydrologic variability is on the rise, as shown by an increase in stream flashiness in both catchments over the 20 years of our study. Resort expansion, which provided for stormwater management, had no discernible effect on the overall runoff difference nor the flow distribution at the scale of the catchments, but sedimentation, water quality impacts and localized erosion cannot be ruled out. Forest clearing, impervious and hardened surfaces, and skier-compacted and machine-made snow may all cause enhanced runoff. However, the greater runoff at West Branch, which occurs primarily during snowmelt and summer, may arise partly from greater precipitation capture in the complex mountain topography. Development pressure on the mountain landscape continues to mount, but managers may also need to consider the confounding effects of a changing climate.

Vermont↗
USGS2021

Vermont and Landsat

The Green Mountain State of Vermont is known for its vast swaths of deciduous forest, patches of evergreen, and the Green Mountains that run through its center. Valuable insight into the forests and landscape features of Vermont can be gleaned from the 54-plus-year historical record of Landsat satellite imagery. The archive is accessible at no cost to researchers, land managers, and the public thanks to the open data policy of the U.S. Geological Survey’s National Land Imaging Program.

Vermont↗
USGS2021

Effects of winter ticks and internal parasites on moose survival in Vermont, USA

Moose ( Alces alces ) have experienced considerable declines along the periphery of their range in the northeastern United States. In Vermont, the population declined 45% from 2010 to 2017 despite minimal hunter harvest and adequate habitat. Similarly, nearby populations recently experienced epizootics characterized by >50% mortality. Declines have largely been associated with the effects of winter ticks ( Dermacentor albipictus ), but uncertainty exists about the effects of environmental and other parasite-related conditions on moose survival. We examined patterns of moose survival among a radio-collared population ( n = 127) in Vermont from 2017 to 2019. Our objectives were to estimate causes of mortality and model survival probability as a function of individual and landscape variables for calves (<1 yr) and adults (≥1 yr). Observed adult survival was 90% in 2017, 84% in 2018, and 86% in 2019, and winter calf survival was 60% in 2017, 50% in 2018, and 37% in 2019. Winter tick infestation was the primary cause of mortality (91% of calves, 25% of adults), and 32% of all mortalities had evidence of meningeal worm ( Parelaphostrongylus tenuis ). Other sources of mortality such as vehicles, harvest, predation, deep snow, and other parasitic infections were negligible. The best supported calf model included sex differences and negative effects of tick engorgement (%/week) and parasite level (roundworm and lungworm). The best supported adult model included the effect of cumulative tick engorgement (cumulative %/week), which negatively affected survival. Our results indicate that winter tick engorgement strongly affects survival, and is probably compounded by the presence of meningeal worm and other parasites. Reduced tick effects may be achieved by decreasing moose density through harvest and managing late winter habitat to minimize tick density. Management of white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) density may also affect the transmission of meningeal worm.

Vermont↗
USGS2021

Event scale relationships of DOC and TDN fluxes in throughfall and stemflow diverge from stream exports in a forested catchment

Aquatic fluxes of carbon and nutrients link terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Within forests, storm events drive both the delivery of carbon and nitrogen to the forest floor and the export of these solutes from the land via streams. To increase understanding of the relationships between hydrologic event character and the relative fluxes of carbon and nitrogen in throughfall, stemflow and streams, we measured dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) concentrations in each flow path for 23 events in a forested watershed in Vermont, USA. DOC and TDN concentrations increased with streamflow, indicating their export was limited by water transport of catchment stores. DOC and TDN concentrations in throughfall and stemflow decreased exponentially with increasing precipitation, suggesting that precipitation removed a portion of available sources from tree surfaces during the events. DOC and TDN fluxes were estimated for 76 events across a 2-year period. For most events, throughfall and stemflow fluxes greatly exceeded stream fluxes, but the imbalance narrowed for larger storms (>30 mm). The largest 10 stream events exported 40% of all stream event DOC whereas those same 10 events contributed 14% of all throughfall export. Approximately 2–5 times more DOC and TDN was exported from trees during rain events than left the catchment via streams annually. The diverging influence of event size on tree versus stream fluxes has important implications for forested ecosystems as hydrological events increase in intensity and frequency due to climate change.

Vermont↗
USGS2021

Juvenile moose stress and nutrition dynamics related to winter ticks, landscape characteristics, climate-mediated factors and survival

Moose populations in the northeastern United States have declined over the past 15 years, primarily due to the impacts of winter ticks. Research efforts have focused on the effects of winter tick infestation on moose survival and reproduction, but stress and nutritional responses to ticks and other stressors remain understudied. We examined the influence of several environmental factors on moose calf stress hormone metabolite concentrations and nutritional restriction in Vermont, USA. We collected 407 fecal and 461 snow urine samples from 84 radio-collared moose calves in the winters of 2017–2019 (January–April) to measure fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM) concentrations and urea nitrogen:creatinine (UN:C) ratios. We used generalized mixed-effects models to evaluate the influence of individual condition, winter ticks, habitat, climate and human development on stress and nutrition in calf moose. We then used these physiological data to build generalized linear models to predict calf winter survival. Calf fGCM concentrations increased with nutritional restriction and snow depth during adult winter tick engorgement. Calf UN:C ratios increased in calves with lighter weights and higher tick loads in early winter. Calf UN:C ratios also increased in individuals with home ranges composed of little deciduous forests during adult winter tick engorgement. Our predictive models estimated that winter survival was negatively related to UN:C ratios and positively related to fGCM concentrations, particularly in early winter. By late March, as winter ticks are having their greatest toll and endogenous resources become depleted, we estimated a curvilinear relationship between fGCM concentrations and survival. Our results provide novel evidence linking moose calf stress and nutrition, a problematic parasite and challenging environment and winter survival. Our findings provide a baseline to support the development of non-invasive physiological monitoring for assessing environmental impacts on moose populations.

Vermont↗
USGS2021

Moose habitat selection and fitness consequences during two critical winter tick life stages in Vermont, United States

The moose ( Alces alces ) is a charismatic species in decline across much of their southern distribution in North America. In the northeastern United States, much of the reduction has been attributed to winter tick ( Dermacentor albipictus ) infestations. Winter ticks are fairly immobile throughout all life stages, and therefore their distribution patterns at any given time are shaped largely by the occurrence of moose across the landscape during the peak of two critical time periods: fall questing (when ticks latch onto moose) and spring drop-off (when engorged female ticks detach from moose). We used recent land cover and lidar data within a dynamic occupancy modeling framework to estimate first-order habitat selection (use vs. non-use) of female moose ( n = 74) during the tick questing and drop-off periods. Patch extinction and colonization rates between the fall questing and spring drop-off periods were strongly influenced by habitat and elevation, but these effects were diminished during the fall questing period when moose were more active across the landscape. From the fall questing period to the spring drop-off period, patches where colonization was high and extinction was low had higher proportions of young (shrub/forage) mixed forest at higher elevations. Further, we evaluated the fitness consequences of habitat selection by adult females during the fall questing period, when females and their calves acquire ticks. We compared Resource Selection Functions (RSF) for five females that successfully reared a calf to age 1 with five females whose calves perished due to ticks. Adult female moose whose offspring perished selected habitats in the fall that spatially coincided with areas of high occupancy probability during the spring tick drop-off period. In contrast, adult female moose whose offspring survived selected areas where the probability of occupancy during the spring drop-off was low; at present, natural selection may favor female adults who do not select the same habitats in fall as in spring. Our model coefficients and mapped results define “hotspots” that are likely encouraging the deleterious effects of the tick-moose cycle. These findings fill knowledge gaps about moose habitat selection that may improve the effectiveness of management aimed at reversing declining population trends.

Vermont↗
USGS2021

Surface water with more natural temperatures promotes physiological and endocrine changes in landlocked Atlantic salmon smolts

Hatchery salmonid smolts are often reared using groundwater with elevated temperatures to maximize growth. Previous work has shown that rearing hatchery smolts in surface water with a more natural thermal regime resulted in increased return rates of adult landlocked Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ). We evaluated whether landlocked Atlantic salmon reared in surface water with a natural temperature regime have altered physiological smolt characteristics compared with fish reared in groundwater with elevated winter temperatures. Hatchery fish were sampled three consecutive years from January to May. Additional fish were released as smolts, recaptured, and compared with fry-stocked smolts. Surface water smolts had earlier peaks of plasma T 4 , lower T 3 levels, later peak cortisol, and lower gill Na + /K + -ATPase activity as compared with groundwater smolts. After release and recapture, surface water fish had elevated plasma T 4 and gill Na + /K + -ATPase activity compared with groundwater fish, but less than stream-reared fish. Elevated plasma T 4 in surface water fish in the hatchery and after release may have promoted imprinting and other aspects of smolt development, contributing to the higher adult return rates of a cohort reared in surface water.

Vermont↗
USGS2021

Modeling moose habitat use by age, sex, and season in Vermont, USA using high-resolution lidar and national land cover data

Moose ( Alces alces ) populations have experienced unprecedented declines along the southern periphery of their range, including Vermont, USA. Habitat management may be used to improve the status of the population and health of individuals. To date, however, Vermont wildlife managers have been challenged to effectively use this important tool due to the lack of fine-scale information on moose space use and habitat characteristics. To assess habitat use, we combined more than 40,000 moose locations collected from radio-collared individuals (n = 74), recent land cover data, and high resolution, 3-dimensional lidar ( light detection and ranging ) data to develop Resource Utilization Functions (RUF) by age (mature and young adult), season (dormant and growth), and sex. Each RUF linked home range use to average habitat conditions within 400 m or 1 km of each 30 m 2 pixel within the home range. Across analyses, the top RUF models included both composition (as measured through the National Land Cover Database) and structure (as measured through lidar) variables, and significantly outperformed models that excluded lidar variables. These findings support the notion that lidar is an effective tool for improving the ability of models to estimate patterns of habitat use, especially for larger bodied mammals. Generally speaking, female moose actively used areas with proportionally more regenerating forest (i.e., forage < 3.0 m) and more mature forest (i.e., canopy structure > 6.0 m), while males actively used more high elevation, mixed forest types. Further, moose exhibited important seasonal differences in habitat use that likely reflect temporal changes in energetic and nutritional requirements and behavior across the year. Moose used areas with proportionally more regenerating forest (i.e., forage < 3.0 m) during the growth period and female moose had strong positive associations with lidar-derived canopy structure during the growth (but not the dormant) period. Ultimately, the resultant maps of habitat use provide a means of informing management activities (e.g., the restoration or alteration of habitats to benefit moose) and policies around land use that may contribute to population recovery.

Vermont↗
USGS2020

Groundwater chloride concentrations in domestic wells and proximity to roadways in Vermont, 2011–2018

The Vermont Department of Health and the U.S. Geological Survey analyzed the concentrations of chloride in groundwater samples collected from 4,319 domestic wells across Vermont between 2011 and 2018. Ninety of these wells were sampled twice and the remaining 4,229 were sampled once. This sample size represents approximately 4 percent of all wells in the State of Vermont. More than half of the wells sampled statewide had groundwater chloride concentrations less than 5 milligrams per liter, whereas more than 1 percent had groundwater concentrations greater than 250 milligrams per liter. Statistical analysis of this dataset revealed distinct patterns in the distribution of chloride in domestic wells. Wells closer (less than 100 meters) to a paved road had significantly higher concentrations of chloride than wells farther ( more than 100 meters) away. Also, wells in urban and in high population density areas, particularly Chittenden and Grand Isle Counties, had significantly higher concentrations of chloride and exhibited greater change in concentrations of chloride over time than wells in less populated areas. This evaluation addresses the distribution of chloride concentrations across the State, which may have adverse health impacts from water infrastructure corrosion and implications for deicing salt application at the State and local levels.

Vermont↗
USGS2020

Thiamine concentrations in lake trout and Atlantic salmon eggs during 14 years following the invasion of alewife in Lake Champlain

Thiamine (vitamin B 1 ) deficiency in Great Lakes salmonines has been linked to consumption of alewife Alosa pseudoharengus . Thiamine deficiency has been recognized as a possible impediment to lake trout Salvelinus namaycush recruitment in the Great Lakes and Atlantic salmon Salmo salar recruitment in the Finger Lakes and Baltic Sea. Alewife invaded Lake Champlain in 2003 which provided an opportunity to investigate changes in thiamine concentrations in salmonine predators during an alewife invasion. We monitored egg unphosphorylated and total thiamine concentrations in lake trout and Atlantic salmon in 2004 and 2007–2019, assessed whether concentrations were associated with mortality, and examined thiaminase activity in alewife. Total thiamine concentrations in lake trout and Atlantic salmon were significantly lower than in 2004 for seven of the ten collection years for lake trout and for nine of the 12 collection years for Atlantic salmon. Mortality and signs of thiamine deficiency were observed in laboratory-reared Atlantic salmon free embryos but not in lake trout. Average thiaminase activity in adult alewife declined from 5200 pmol/g/min in 2006 to 1500 pmol/g/min in 2012. Our results provide further evidence that a diet that includes alewife reduces egg thiamine concentrations in salmonines. This effect was observed within four years of the invasion of alewife.

Vermont↗
USGS2020

Micrometer-scale characterization of solid mine waste aids in closure due diligence

Precious- and base-metal mining often occurs in deposits with high acid-generating potential, resulting in mine waste that contains metals in forms of varying bioavailability, and therefore toxicity. The solids that host these metals are often noncrystalline, nanometer to micrometer in size, or undetectable by readily available analytical techniques (e.g., X-ray diffraction). This analytical shortcoming can pose a challenge when attempting to characterize sources and natural attenuation of metals at a given site, which is a best practice to satisfy closure due diligence. Numerous case studies have shown that efforts to characterize mine waste at multiple scales, particularly the micrometer scale, often lead to a better understanding of metal distribution and potential contamination risks. This paper presents a case study that compares the use of both traditional and non-traditional techniques to identify and quantify metal hosts in sediments downstream of the abandoned mine waste piles at the Ely Copper Mine Superfund site in Vermont (USA). The contaminant present in the highest concentration in the sediments is copper, yet not all copper-bearing solids were detected with bulk X-ray diffraction (XRD). At the micrometer scale, a combination of synchrotron-based X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and an automated mineralogy (AM) system were used to identify the most abundant copper-bearing solids. Bulk XAS and AM also provided semi-quantitative abundances of these solids in the sediment. At the Ely Copper Mine, copper in stream sediments was found to be predominantly hosted in sulphide minerals downstream of a major mine waste pile, whereas upstream copper was predominantly hosted in secondary iron and manganese (oxyhydr)oxides. These copper-bearing hosts were consistent with the expected bioavailability of copper in the sediments based on laboratory toxicity tests with aquatic organisms. When the bulk of copper was present in sulphides, aquatic organisms experienced greater survival than when copper was mostly associated with secondary iron and manganese (oxyhydr)oxides. The information gained from probing the sediments at multiple scales can now be used to prioritize containment and remediation strategies. While synchrotron-based analytical techniques have proven to be invaluable in many studies of mine waste, access to these techniques is limited. In contrast, access to a scanning electron microscope that can perform AM is becoming more common, primarily for the application in mining design and mineral processing operations. More recently, the successful use of AM to characterize mine waste suggests that this technique can be equally as valuable for mine closure plans. The resolution of information obtained may go beyond what is required from a regulatory perspective, but given that the results have the potential to be more conclusive than many traditional techniques, this level of characterization may save time and money in the long run.

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