Effectiveness of black bear translocation as a conflict management tool
Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM) in Tennessee and North Carolina, USA, has a high-density American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) population and high human visitation, resulting in frequent human–bear conflicts. Translocation is a common tool for conflict mitigation, but previous research at GRSM based on very high frequency (VHF) telemetry and eartag returns found that the fates of most translocated conflict bears were unknown, thereby leaving many unanswered questions about the fates and movements of translocated bears, including their propensity for engaging in recurrent human–bear conflicts. We equipped 50 bears involved in human–bear conflicts in GRSM with global positioning system (GPS) radio-collars and translocated them to Cherokee National Forest, Tennessee. We used those GPS location data to evaluate survival, recurrence of conflict activity, homing rate, and settling rate. Many of these bears were released in the Pigeon River gorge (PRG), where we also collared 37 resident bears to compare survival rates and movement patterns. Known-fate models indicated that the mean annual survival probability for translocated bears across the study area during all years (2015–2024) was 0.223 (95% CI = 0.107–0.339), whereas the survival of translocated bears and resident bears in the PRG during years 2022–2024 was 0.210 (95% CI = 0.000–0.445) and 0.787 (95% CI = 0.632–0.942), respectively. Annual survival of translocated bears was also lower (0.034, 95% CI = 0.000–0.125) than their non-translocated counterparts that remained in GRSM (0.869, 95% CI = 0.762–0.976) from 2015–2018. Harvest was the greatest overall mortality risk for all translocated bears (0.482, 95% CI = 0.326–0.638), and translocated bears were at greater risk of harvest (0.750, 95% CI = 0.350–1.000) than residents (0.136, 95% CI = 0.000–0.280) in the PRG. The annual probability of translocated bears returning to their original capture locations (i.e., homing) decreased with distance translocated and averaged 0.615 (95% CI = 0.341–0.889) for adults and 0.111 (95% CI = 0.000–0.318) for subadults. For every 1-km increase in distance translocated, the weekly odds of a bear homing decreased by a factor of 0.975 ( ̂𝛽 = −0.025, 85% CI = −0.046 to −0.004). The annual probability of recurrent conflict for translocated bears, defined as a report to agency officials by landowners, was 0.388 (95% CI = 0.190–0.586). Recurrent conflict increased with the level of food conditioning ( ̂𝛽 = 0.334, 85% CI = 0.098–0.570). Public education and improved waste management are paramount to prevent human–bear conflicts, as translocation and other bear-centered options may not accomplish desired outcomes.