Geology topics

Myung W. Lee

Publications and source records attributed to Myung W. Lee.

At least 55 records · Page 3Linked to original sources

USGS2007

Velocities and Attenuations of Gas Hydrate-Bearing Sediments

Monopole and dipole logging data at the Mallik 5L-38, Mackenzie Delta, Canada, provide a challenge for sonic velocity and attenuation models used to remotely estimate pore-space gas hydrate content. Velocity and attenuation are linked, with velocity dispersion causing increased attenuation. Sonic waveforms for Mallik 5L-38, however, show no velocity dispersion in gas hydrate-bearing layers, yet are highly attenuated. Attenuation models applied to Mallik 5L-38 data are shown to be inconsistent with the observed velocity measurements, and therefore are suspect in their ability to predict gas hydrate content. A model explicitly linking velocity and attenuation data is presented, accurately predicting gas hydrate content from velocity data alone while demonstrating that the attenuation mechanisms at the Mallik 5L-38 site have not yet been identified.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2006

Identification of marine hydrates in situ and their distribution off the Atlantic coast of the United States

Natural gas hydrates, mostly methane hydrates, occur within seafloor sediments almost everywhere in the world’s oceans where water depths exceed 300 to 500 m, and hydrates in this setting probably contain very large quantities of methane.’ Gas hydrates have been identified in marine sediments by coring and by the response that they create in seismic reflection profiles. Our research has endeavored to refine the criteria used to recognize hydrates in seismic reflection data and to use such data to map hydrates on the United States Atlantic continential rise. Gas hydrates in ocean floor sediments occur within a layer just below the sea floor, controlled by the pressure and temperature conditions. Actually, hydrates would be stable in deep ocean water (at depths greater than 300-500 m), but probably do not exist there due to lack of gas saturation. Furthermore, if they did form in the water the hydrates would float upward and melt at the lower pressure and higher temperature conditions found at shallower depths. However, gas is present in the sediments either as biogenic gas produced by bacteria or as thermogenic gas rising from deeper strata, and when hydrate forms in sediments it is trapped in the sedimentary matrix. Temperature increases downward through the sediments, and, although pressure also increases (which tends to make hydrate more stable), the temperature ultimately becomes too great for hydrate to exist at ambient pressure. Because the thermal gradient is fairly constant within a restricted geographic region, this stability limit will be reached at approximately the same subbottom depth everywhere in the region. The result is a zone of hydrate-cemented sediment that extends down from the sea floor; this zone can have a thickness of as much as 1000 m.

Atlantic Coast↗

USGS2006

Inversion of elastic impedance for unconsolidated sediments

Elastic properties of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments are important for quantifying gas hydrate amounts as well as discriminating the gas hydrate effect on velocity from free gas or pore pressure. This paper presents an elastic inversion method for estimating elastic properties of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments from angle stacks using sequential inversion of P-wave impedance from the zero-offset stack and S-wave impedance from the far-offset stack without assuming velocity ratio.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2006

Is amplitude loss of sonic waveforms due to intrinsic attenuation or source coupling to the medium?

Sonic waveforms acquired in gas-hydrate-bearing sediments indicate strong amplitude loss associated with an increase in sonic velocity. Because the gas hydrate increases sonic velocities, the amplitude loss has been interpreted as due to intrinsic attenuation caused by the gas hydrate in the pore space, which apparently contradicts conventional wave propagation theory. For a sonic source in a fluid-filled borehole, the signal amplitude transmitted into the formation depends on the physical properties of the formation, including any pore contents, in the immediate vicinity of the source. A signal in acoustically fast material, such as gas-hydrate-bearing sediments, has a smaller amplitude than a signal in acoustically slower material. Therefore, it is reasonable to interpret the amplitude loss in the gas-hydrate-bearing sediments in terms of source coupling to the surrounding medium as well as intrinsic attenuation. An analysis of sonic waveforms measured at the Mallik 5L-38 well, Northwest Territories, Canada, indicates that a significant part of the sonic waveform's amplitude loss is due to a source-coupling effect. All amplitude analyses of sonic waveforms should include the effect of source coupling in order to accurately characterize the formation's intrinsic attenuation.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2006

A method of Shaly sand correction for estimating gas hydrate saturations using downhole electrical resistivity log data

Estimation of the amount of nonconductive and conductive constituents in the pore space of sediments, using electrical resistivity logs, generally loses accuracy when clays are present in the reservoir. Many different methods and clay models have been proposed to account for the conductivity of clay (for example, the shaly sand correction). In this study, the Simandoux model is employed to correct for the clay effect in order to more accurately estimate gas hydrate saturations. This study utilizes the fact that the effect of clay on the resistivity of a sediment is manifested in the Archie constants a and m, values of which are generally a = 1 and m = 2 for clean-sand reservoirs. Results of the study indicate that as the clay content increases, a also increases whereas m decreases. On the basis of the relationship between the Archie constants a and m with respect to the clay amount, a method of correcting for the clay effect on the estimation of water saturation is proposed. This method works well if the relationship between porosity and resistivity on a log-log plot is approximately linear and if accurate Archie constants a and m for clean sand are known. However, because of the linearity condition, it is difficult to apply the method to low-porosity reservoirs. Gas-hydrate-bearing sediments generally have high porosities because of their shallow depth of occurrence, so the method can be effectively applied in estimating gas hydrate saturations.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2006

An Effective Method for Inversion of Elastic Impedance for Shallow Sediments and Its Application to Gas Hydrate-Bearing Sediments

Elastic properties of gas hydrate-bearing sediments (GHBS) are important for identifying and quantifying gas hydrate as well as discriminating the effects of free gas on velocity from that due to overpressure. Elastic properties of GHBS sediments can be estimated from elastic inversion using the elastic impedance. The accuracy of elastic inversion can be increased by using the predicted S-wave velocity (Vs) in the parameter k, which is k = (Vs / Vp)2. However, when Vs is less than about 0.6 kilometer per second, the inversion is inaccurate, partly because of the difficulty in accurately predicting low S-wave velocities and partly because of the large error associated with small k values. A new formula that leads to estimates of only the high-frequency part of velocity is proposed by decomposing Vs into low- and high-frequency parts. This new inversion formula is applied to a variety of well logs, and the results demonstrate its effectiveness for all ranges of Vs as long as the deviation of Vs from the low-frequency part of Vs is small. For GHBS, the deviation of Vs from the low-frequency part of Vs can be large for moderate to high gas hydrate saturations. Therefore, the new formula is not effective for elastic inversion for GHBS unless the gas hydrate effect is incorporated into the low-frequency part of Vs. For inversion of GHBS with Vs greater than about 0.6 kilometer per second, the original formulation is preferable.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2005

Early to middle Jurassic salt in Baltimore Canyon trough

A pervasive, moderately deep (5-6 s two-way traveltime), high-amplitude reflection is traced on multichannel seismic sections over an approximately 7500 km² area of Baltimore Canyon Trough. The layer associated with the reflection is about 25 km wide, about 60 m thick in the center, and thins monotonically laterally, though asymmetrically, at the edges. Geophysical characteristics are compatible with an interpretation of this negative-polarity reflector as a salt lens deposited on the top of a synrift evaporite sequence. However, alternative interpretations of the layer as gas-saturated sediments, an overpressured shale, or a weathered igneous intrusion are also worthy of consideration. Geophysical analyses were made on three wavelet- and true-amplitude processed multichannel seismic dip lines. The lens-shaped layer demarked by the reflection has a velocity of 4.4 km/s; the lens lies within strata having velocities of 5.3 to 5.7 km/s. A trough marking the onset of the lens has an amplitude that is 10 to 20 db greater than reflections from the encasing layers and an apparent reflection coefficient of -0.24. Using amplitude versus offset analysis methods, we determined that observed reflection coefficients, though variable, decrease consistently with respect to increasing offset. Linear inversion yields a low density, about 2.2 g/cc . Integration of one of the true-amplitude-processed lines and one-dimensional modeling of the layer provide data on the impedance contrast and interference patterns that further reinforce the salt lens interpretation. The thin, horizontal salt lens was probably deposited or precipitated during the Jurassic in a shallow, narrow (peripheral) rift basin, as rifting progressed down the North Atlantic margin. Unlike thicker deposits in other areas that deformed and flowed, often into diapir structures, this thin lens has remained relatively undisturbed since deposition.

Baltimore Canyon trough↗

USGS2005

Well log analysis to assist the interpretation of 3-D seismic data at Milne Point, north slope of Alaska

In order to assess the resource potential of gas hydrate deposits in the North Slope of Alaska, 3-D seismic and well data at Milne Point were obtained from BP Exploration (Alaska), Inc. The well-log analysis has three primary purposes: (1) Estimate gas hydrate or gas saturations from the well logs; (2) predict P-wave velocity where there is no measured P-wave velocity in order to generate synthetic seismograms; and (3) edit P-wave velocities where degraded borehole conditions, such as washouts, affected the P-wave measurement significantly. Edited/predicted P-wave velocities were needed to map the gas-hydrate-bearing horizons in the complexly faulted upper part of 3-D seismic volume. The estimated gas-hydrate/gas saturations from the well logs were used to relate to seismic attributes in order to map regional distribution of gas hydrate inside the 3-D seismic grid. The P-wave velocities were predicted using the modified Biot-Gassmann theory, herein referred to as BGTL, with gas-hydrate saturations estimated from the resistivity logs, porosity, and clay volume content. The effect of gas on velocities was modeled using the classical Biot-Gassman theory (BGT) with parameters estimated from BGTL.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2005

Proposed moduli of dry rock and their application to predicting elastic velocities of sandstones

Velocities of water-saturated isotropic sandstones under low frequency can be modeled using the Biot-Gassmann theory if the moduli of dry rocks are known. On the basis of effective medium theory by Kuster and Toksoz, bulk and shear moduli of dry sandstone are proposed. These moduli are related to each other through a consolidation parameter and provide a new way to calculate elastic velocities. Because this parameter depends on differential pressure and the degree of consolidation, the proposed moduli can be used to calculate elastic velocities of sedimentary rocks under different in-place conditions by varying the consolidation parameter. This theory predicts that the ratio of P-wave to S-wave velocity (Vp/Vs) of a dry rock decreases as differential pressure increases and porosity decreases. This pattern of behavior is similar to that of water-saturated sedimentary rocks. If microcracks are present in sandstones, the velocity ratio usually increases as differential pressure increases. This implies that this theory is optimal for sandstones having intergranular porosities. Even though the accurate behavior of the consolidation parameter with respect to differential pressure or the degree of consolidation is not known, this theory presents a new way to predict S-wave velocity from P-wave velocity and porosity and to calculate elastic velocities of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments. For given properties of sandstones such as bulk and shear moduli of matrix, only the consolidation parameter affects velocities, and this parameter can be estimated directly from the measurements; thus, the prediction of S-wave velocity is accurate, reflecting in-place conditions.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2005

Controls on the physical properties of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments because of the interaction between gas hydrate and porous media

Physical properties of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments depend on the pore-scale interaction between gas hydrate and porous media as well as the amount of gas hydrate present. Well log measurements such as proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation and electromagnetic propagation tool (EPT) techniques depend primarily on the bulk volume of gas hydrate in the pore space irrespective of the pore-scale interaction. However, elastic velocities or permeability depend on how gas hydrate is distributed in the pore space as well as the amount of gas hydrate. Gas-hydrate saturations estimated from NMR and EPT measurements are free of adjustable parameters; thus, the estimations are unbiased estimates of gas hydrate if the measurement is accurate. However, the amount of gas hydrate estimated from elastic velocities or electrical resistivities depends on many adjustable parameters and models related to the interaction of gas hydrate and porous media, so these estimates are model dependent and biased. NMR, EPT, elastic-wave velocity, electrical resistivity, and permeability measurements acquired in the Mallik 5L-38 well in the Mackenzie Delta, Canada, show that all of the well log evaluation techniques considered provide comparable gas-hydrate saturations in clean (low shale content) sandstone intervals with high gas-hydrate saturations. However, in shaly intervals, estimates from log measurement depending on the pore-scale interaction between gas hydrate and host sediments are higher than those estimates from measurements depending on the bulk volume of gas hydrate.

Scientific Investigations Report↗

USGS2003

Gas hydrate volume estimations on the South Shetland continental margin, Antarctic Peninsula

Multi-channel seismic data acquired on the South Shetland margin, northern Antarctic Peninsula, show that Bottom Simulating Reflectors (BSRs) are widespread in the area, implying large volumes of gas hydrates. In order to estimate the volume of gas hydrate in the area, interval velocities were determined using a 1-D velocity inversion method and porosities were deduced from their relationship with sub-bottom depth for terrigenous sediments. Because data such as well logs are not available, we made two baseline models for the velocities and porosities of non-gas hydrate-bearing sediments in the area, considering the velocity jump observed at the shallow sub-bottom depth due to joint contributions of gas hydrate and a shallow unconformity. The difference between the results of the two models is not significant. The parameters used to estimate the total volume of gas hydrate in the study area were 145 km of total length of BSRs identified on seismic profiles, 350 m thickness and 15 km width of gas hydrate-bearing sediments, and 6.3% of the average volume gas hydrate concentration (based on the second baseline model). Assuming that gas hydrates exist only where BSRs are observed, the total volume of gas hydrates along the seismic profiles in the area is about 4.8 ?? 1010 m3 (7.7 ?? 1012 m3 volume of methane at standard temperature and pressure).

Antarctic Science↗

USGS2003

Velocity ratio and its application to predicting velocities

The velocity ratio of water-saturated sediment derived from the Biot-Gassmann theory depends mainly on the Biot coefficient?a property of dry rock?for consolidated sediments with porosity less than the critical porosity. With this theory, the shear moduli of dry sediments are the same as the shear moduli of water-saturated sediments. Because the velocity ratio depends on the Biot coefficient explicitly, Biot-Gassmann theory accurately predicts velocity ratios with respect to differential pressure for a given porosity. However, because the velocity ratio is weakly related to porosity, it is not appropriate to investigate the velocity ratio with respect to porosity (f). A new formulation based on the assumption that the velocity ratio is a function of (1?f)n yields a velocity ratio that depends on porosity, but not on the Biot coefficient explicitly. Unlike the Biot-Gassmann theory, the shear moduli of water-saturated sediments depend not only on the Biot coefficient but also on the pore fluid. This nonclassical behavior of the shear modulus of water-saturated sediment is speculated to be an effect of interaction between fluid and the solid matrix, resulting in softening or hardening of the rock frame and an effect of velocity dispersion owing to local fluid flow. The exponent n controls the degree of softening/hardening of the formation. Based on laboratory data measured near 1 MHz, this theory is extended to include the effect of differential pressure on the velocity ratio by making n a function of differential pressure and consolidation. However, the velocity dispersion and anisotropy are not included in the formulation.

Bulletin↗

USGS2003

Elastic properties of overpressured and unconsolidated sediments

Differential pressure affects elastic velocities and Poisson?s ratio of sediments in such a way that velocities increase as differential pressure increases. Overpressured zones in sediments can be detected by observing an increase in Poisson?s ratio with a corresponding drop in elastic velocities. In highly overpressured sands, such as shallow water flow sands, the P-to S-wave velocity ratio (Vp/Vs) is very high, on the order of 10 or higher, due to the unconsolidated and uncemented nature of sediments. In order to predict elastic characteristics of highly overpressured sands, Biot-Gassmann theory by Lee (BGTL) is used with a variable exponent n that depends on differential pressure and the degree of consolidation/compaction. The exponent n decreases as differential pressure and the degree of consolidation increases, and, as n decreases, velocity increases and Vp/Vs decreases. The predicted velocity ratio by BGTL agrees well with the measured velocity ratio at low differential pressure for unconsolidated sediments.

Bulletin↗

USGS2002

Relationship of gas hydrate concentration to porosity and reflection amplitude in a research well, Mackenzie Delta, Canada

Well logs acquired at the Mallik 2L-38 gas hydrate research well. Mackenzie Delta, Canada, reveal a distinct trend showing that the resistivity of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments increases with increases in density porosities. This trend, opposite to the general trend of decrease in resistivity with porosity, implies that gas hydrates are more concentrated in the higher porosity. Using the Mallik 2L-38 well data, a proportional gas hydrate concentration (PGHC) model, which states that the gas hydrate concentration in the sediment's pore space is linearly proportional to porosity, is proposed for the general habitat of gas hydrate in sediments. Anomalous data (less than 6% of the total data) outside the dominant observed trend can be explained by local geological characteristics. The anomalous data analysis indicates that highly concentrated gas-hydrate-bearing layers would be expected where sediments have high proportions of gravel and coarse sand. Using the parameters in the PGHC model determined from resistivity-porosity logs, it is possible to qualitatively predict the degree of reflection amplitude variations in seismic profiles. Moderate-to-strong reflections are expected for the Mallik 2L-38 well. ?? 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Marine and Petroleum Geology↗

USGS2002

Modified Biot-Gassmann theory for calculating elastic velocities for unconsolidated and consolidated sediments

The classical Biot-Gassmann theory (BGT) generally overestimates shear-wave velocities of water-saturated sediments. To overcome this problem, a new theory is developed based on BGT and on the velocity ratio as a function of G (1−φ) n , where φ is porosity and n and G are constants. Based on laboratory data measured at ultrasonic frequencies, parameters for the new formulation are derived. This new theory is extended to include the effect of differential pressure and consolidation on the velocity ratio by making n a function of differential pressure and the rate of porosity reduction with respect to differential pressure. A scale G is introduced to compensate for discrepancies between measured and predicted velocities, mainly caused by the presence of clay in the matrix. As differential pressure increases and the rate of porosity reduction with respect to differential pressure decreases, the exponent n decreases and elastic velocities increase. Because velocity dispersion is not considered, this new formula is optimum for analyzing velocities measured at ultrasonic frequencies or for sediments having low dispersion characteristics such as clean sandstone with high permeability to predict velocities from porosity or from porosity and P-wave velocity and is in good agreement with laboratory and well log data.

Marine Geophysical Research↗

USGS2002

Biot-Gassmann theory for velocities of gas hydrate-bearing sediments

Elevated elastic velocities are a distinct physical property of gas hydrate-bearing sediments. A number of velocity models and equations (e.g., pore-filling model, cementation model, effective medium theories, weighted equations, and time-average equations) have been used to describe this effect. In particular, the weighted equation and effective medium theory predict reasonably well the elastic properties of unconsolidated gas hydrate-bearing sediments. A weakness of the weighted equation is its use of the empirical relationship of the time-average equation as one element of the equation. One drawback of the effective medium theory is its prediction of unreasonably higher shear-wave velocity at high porosities, so that the predicted velocity ratio does not agree well with the observed velocity ratio. To overcome these weaknesses, a method is proposed, based on Biot-Gassmann theories and assuming the formation velocity ratio (shear to compressional velocity) of an unconsolidated sediment is related to the velocity ratio of the matrix material of the formation and its porosity. Using the Biot coefficient calculated from either the weighted equation or from the effective medium theory, the proposed method accurately predicts the elastic properties of unconsolidated sediments with or without gas hydrate concentration. This method was applied to the observed velocities at the Mallik 2L-39 well, Mackenzie Delta, Canada.

Mackenzie Delta↗

USGS2001

Amplitude blanking related to the pore-filling of gas hydrate in sediments

Seismic indicators of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments include elevated interval velocities and amplitude reduction of seismic reflections owing to the presence of gas hydrate in the sediment's pore spaces. However, large amplitude blanking with relatively low interval velocities observed at the Blake Ridge has been enigmatic because realistic seismic models were absent to explain the observation. This study proposes models in which the gas hydrate concentrations vary in proportion to the porosity. Where gas hydrate concentrations are greater in more porous media, a significant amplitude blanking can be achieved with relatively low interval velocity. Depending on the amount of gas hydrate concentration in the pore space, reflection amplitudes from hydrate-bearing sediments can be much less, less or greater than those from corresponding non-hydrate-bearing sediments.

Marine Geophysical Research↗

USGS2001

Gas hydrate estimation error associated with uncertainties of measurements and parameters

Downhole log measurements such as acoustic or electrical resistivity logs are often used to estimate in situ gas hydrate concentrations in sediment pore space. Estimation errors owing to uncertainties associated with downhole measurements and the parameters for estimation equations (weight in the acoustic method and Archie?s parameters in the resistivity method) are analyzed in order to assess the accuracy of estimation of gas hydrate concentration. Accurate downhole measurements are essential for accurate estimation of the gas hydrate concentrations in sediments, particularly at low gas hydrate concentrations and when using acoustic data. Estimation errors owing to measurement errors, except the slowness error, decrease as the gas hydrate concentration increases and as porosity increases. Estimation errors owing to uncertainty in the input parameters are small in the acoustic method and may be signifi cant in the resistivity method at low gas hydrate concentrations.

Bulletin↗