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Joe B. Fletcher

Publications and source records attributed to Joe B. Fletcher.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources
USGS2011

Moments, magnitudes, and radiated energies of non-volcanic tremor near Cholame, CA, from ground motion spectra at UPSAR

By averaging the spectra of events within two episodes of tremor (on Jan. 21 and 24, 2005) across the 12 stations of UPSAR, we improved the S/N sufficiently to define source spectra. Analysis of eleven impulsive events revealed attenuation-corrected spectra of displacement similar to those of earthquakes, with a low-frequency plateau, a corner frequency, and a high frequency decay proportional to f −2 . Seismic moments, M 0 , estimated from these spectra range from about 3 to 10 × 10 11 N-m or moment magnitudes in the range 1.6 to 1.9. The corner frequencies range from 2.6 to 7.2 Hz and, if interpreted in the same way as for earthquakes, indicate low stress drops that vary from 0.001 to 0.04 MPa. Seismic energies, estimated from the ground motion spectra, vary from 0.2 × 10 5 to 4.4 × 10 5 J, or apparent stresses in the range 0.002 to 0.02 MPa. The low stress parameters are consistent with a weak fault zone in the lower crust at the depth of tremor. In contrast, the same analysis on a micro-earthquake, located near Cholame (depth = 10.3 km), revealed a stress drop of 0.5 MPa and an apparent stress of 0.02 MPa. Residual spectra from ω −2 model fits to the displacement spectra of the non-volcanic tremor events show peaks near 4 Hz that are not apparent in the spectra for the microearthquake nor for the spectrum of earth noise. These spectral peaks may indicate that tremor entails more than shear failure reminiscent of mechanisms, possibly entailing fluid flow, associated with volcanic tremor or deep volcanic earthquakes.

Geophysical Research Letters↗
USGS2011

Seismograms offer insight into Oklahoma City bombing

The terrorist bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995, generated seismic waves that were recorded on two permanent seismographs about 7 and 26 km away from the bombing. The seismogram recorded at 26 km shows two low-frequency wave trains, discrete sets of oscillatory signals, that begin about 10 s apart. Public release of this record prompted speculation that each wave train was caused by a different energy source. On May 23, 1995, the U.S. Geological Survey monitored the demolition of the bomb-ravaged Federal Building with portable seismographs (Figure 1). Two wave trains were picked up again. The recordings indicate that the wave trains during both the bombing and demolition represent seismic waves traveling at different velocities. We conclude that the two wave trains recorded during the bombing are consistent with a single impulsive energy source.

Oklahoma↗
USGS2010

Laboratory-based maximum slip rates in earthquake rupture zones and radiated energy

Laboratory stick-slip friction experiments indicate that peak slip rates increase with the stresses loading the fault to cause rupture. If this applies also to earthquake fault zones, then the analysis of rupture processes is simplified inasmuch as the slip rates depend only on the local yield stress and are independent of factors specific to a particular event, including the distribution of slip in space and time. We test this hypothesis by first using it to develop an expression for radiated energy that depends primarily on the seismic moment and the maximum slip rate. From laboratory results, the maximum slip rate for any crustal earthquake, as well as various stress parameters including the yield stress, can be determined based on its seismic moment and the maximum slip within its rupture zone. After finding that our new equation for radiated energy works well for laboratory stick-slip friction experiments, we used it to estimate radiated energies for five earthquakes with magnitudes near 2 that were induced in a deep gold mine, an M 2.1 repeating earthquake near the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) site and seven major earthquakes in California and found good agreement with energies estimated independently from spectra of local and regional ground-motion data. Estimates of yield stress for the earthquakes in our study range from 12 MPa to 122 MPa with a median of 64 MPa. The lowest value was estimated for the 2004 M 6 Parkfield, California, earthquake whereas the nearby M 2.1 repeating earthquake, as recorded in the SAFOD pilot hole, showed a more typical yield stress of 64 MPa.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2009

Software for inference of dynamic ground strains and rotations and their errors from short baseline array observations of ground motions

In two previous articles we presented a formulation for inferring the strains and rotations of the ground beneath a seismic array having a finite footprint. In this article we derive expressions for the error covariance matrices of the inferred strains and rotations, and we present software for the calculation of ground strains, rotations, and their variances from short baseline array ground-motion data.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2008

Observation and prediction of dynamic ground strains, tilts, and torsions caused by the Mw 6.0 2004 Parkfield, California, earthquake and aftershocks, derived from UPSAR array observations

The 28 September 2004 Parkfield, California, earthquake (Mw 6.0) and four aftershocks (Mw 4.7-5.1) were recorded on 12 accelerograph stations of the U.S. Geological Survey Parkfield seismic array (UPSAR), an array of three-component accelerographs occupying an area of about 1 km2 located 8.8 km from the San Andreas fault. Peak horizontal acceleration and velocity at UPSAR during the mainshock were 0.45g and 27 cm/sec, respectively. We determined both time-varying and peak values of ground dilatations, shear strains, torsions, tilts, torsion rates, and tilt rates by applying a time-dependent geodetic analysis to the observed array displacement time series. Array-derived dilatations agree fairly well with point measurements made on high sample rate recordings of the Parkfield-area dilatometers (Johnston et al., 2006). Torsion Fourier amplitude spectra agree well with ground velocity spectra, as expected for propagating plane waves. A simple predictive relation, using the predicted peak velocity from the Boore-Atkinson ground-motion prediction relation (Boore and Atkinson, 2007) scaled by a phase velocity of 1 km/sec, predicts observed peak Parkfield and Chi-Chi rotations (Huang, 2003) well. However, rotation rates measured during Mw 5 Ito, Japan, events observed on a gyro sensor (Takeo, 1998) are factors of 5-60 greater than those predicted by our predictive relation. This discrepancy might be caused by a scale dependence in rotation, with rotations measured over a short baseline exceeding those measured over long baselines. An alternative hypothesis is that events having significant non-double-couple mechanisms, like the Ito events, radiate much stronger rotations than double-couple events. If this is true, then rotational observations might provide an important source of new information for monitoring seismicity in volcanic areas.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2007

Near-fault peak ground velocity from earthquake and laboratory data

We test the hypothesis that peak ground velocity (PGV) has an upper bound independent of earthquake magnitude and that this bound is controlled primarily by the strength of the seismogenic crust. The highest PGVs, ranging up to several meters per second, have been measured at sites within a few kilometers of the causative faults. Because the database for near-fault PGV is small, we use earthquake slip models, laboratory experiments, and evidence from a mining-induced earthquake to investigate the factors influencing near-fault PGV and the nature of its scaling. For each earthquake slip model we have calculated the peak slip rates for all subfaults and then chosen the maximum of these rates as an estimate of twice the largest near-fault PGV. Nine slip models for eight earthquakes, with magnitudes ranging from 6.5 to 7.6, yielded maximum peak slip rates ranging from 2.3 to 12 m/sec with a median of 5.9 m/sec. By making several adjustments, PGVs for small earthquakes can be simulated from peak slip rates measured during laboratory stick-slip experiments. First, we adjust the PGV for differences in the state of stress (i.e., the difference between the laboratory loading stresses and those appropriate for faults at seismogenic depths). To do this, we multiply both the slip and the peak slip rate by the ratio of the effective normal stresses acting on fault planes measured at 6.8 km depth at the KTB site, Germany (deepest available in situ stress measurements), to those acting on the laboratory faults. We also adjust the seismic moment by replacing the laboratory fault with a buried circular shear crack whose radius is chosen to match the experimental unloading stiffness. An additional, less important adjustment is needed for experiments run in triaxial loading conditions. With these adjustments, peak slip rates for 10 stick-slip events, with scaled moment magnitudes from -2.9 to 1.0, range from 3.3 to 10.3 m/sec, with a median of 5.4 m/sec. Both the earthquake and laboratory results are consistent with typical maximum peak slip rates averaging between 5 and 6 m/sec or corresponding maximum near-fault PGVs between 2.5 and 3 m/sec at seismogenic depths, independent of magnitude. Our ability to replicate maximum slip rates in the fault zones of earthquakes by adjusting the corresponding laboratory rates using the ratio of effective normal stresses acting on the fault planes suggests that the strength of the seismogenic crust is the important factor limiting the near-fault PGV.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2006

Distribution of stress drop, stiffness, and fracture energy over earthquake rupture zones

Using information provided by slip models and the methodology of McGarr and Fletcher (2002), we map static stress drop, stiffness (k = ????/u, where ???? is static stress drop and u is slip), and fracture energy over the slip surface to investigate the earthquake rupture process and energy budget. For the 1994 M6.7 Northridge, 1992 M7.3 Landers, and 1995 M6.9 Kobe earthquakes, the distributions of static stress drop show strong heterogeneity, emphasizing the importance of asperities in the rupture process. Average values of static stress drop are 17, 11, and 4 Mpa for Northridge, Landers, and Kobe, respectively. These values are substantially higher than estimates based on simple crack models, suggesting that the failure process involves the rupture of asperities within the larger fault zone. Stress drop as a function of depth for the Northridge and Landers earthquakes suggests that stress drops are limited by crustal strength. For these two earthquakes, regions of high slip are surrounded by high values of stiffness. Particularly for the Northridge earthquake, the prominent patch of high slip in the central part of the fault is bordered by a ring of high stiffness and is consistent with expectations based on the failure of an asperity loaded at its edge due to exterior slip. Stiffness within an asperity is inversely related to its dimensions. Estimates of fracture energy, based on static stress drop, slip, and rupture speed, were used to investigate the nature of slip weakening at four locations near the hypocenter of the Kobe earthquake for comparison with independent results based on a dynamic model of this earthquake. One subfault updip and to the NE of the hypocenter has a fracture energy of 1.1 MJ/m2 and a slip-weakening distance, Dc, of 0.66 m. Right triangles, whose base and height are Dc and the dynamic stress drop, respectively, approximately overlie the slip-dependent stress given by Ide and Takeo (1997) for the same locations near the hypocenter. The total fracture energy for the Kobe earthquake, 3.7 ?? 1014 J, is about the same as the seismic energy (Ea = 3.2 ?? 1014 J.

Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth↗
USGS2006

Rupture propagation of the 2004 Parkfield, California, earthquake from observations at the UPSAR

Using a short-baseline seismic array (U.S. Geological Survey Parkfield Dense Seismograph Array [UPSAR]) about 12 km west of the rupture initiation of the 28 September 2004 M 6.0 Parkfield, California, earthquake, we have observed the movement of the rupture front of this earthquake on the San Andreas fault. The sources of high-frequency arrivals at UPSAR, which we use to identify the rupture front, are mapped onto the San Andreas fault using their apparent velocity and back azimuth. Measurements of apparent velocity and back azimuth are calibrated using aftershocks, which have a compact source and known location. Aftershock back azimuths show considerable lateral refraction, consistent with a high-velocity ridge on the southwest side of the fault. We infer that the initial mainshock rupture velocity was approximately the Rayleigh speed (with respect to slower side of the fault), and the rupture then slowed to about 0.66?? near the town of Parkfield after 2 sec. The last well-correlated pulse, 4 sec after S, is the largest at UPSAR, and its source is near the region of large accelerations recorded by strong-motion accelerographs and close to northern extent of continuous surface fractures on the southwest fracture zone. Coincidence of sources with preshock and aftershock distributions suggests fault material properties control rupture behavior. High-frequency sources approximately correlate with the edges of asperities identified as regions of high slip derived from inversion of strong-motion waveforms.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2005

Strong ground motion in the Taipei basin from the 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, earthquake

The Taipei basin, located in northwest Taiwan about 160 km from the epicenter of the Chi-Chi earthquake, is a shallow, triangular-shaped basin filled with low-velocity fluvial deposits. There is a strong velocity contrast across the basement interface of about 600 m/sec at a depth of about 600-700 m in the deeper section of the basin, suggesting that ground motion should be amplified at sites in the basin. In this article, the ground-motion recordings are analyzed to determine the effect of the basin both in terms of amplifications expected from a 1D model of the sediments in the basin and in terms of the 3D structure of the basin. Residuals determined for peak acceleration from attenuation curves are more positive (amplified) in the basin (average of 5.3 cm/ sec2 compared to - 24.2 cm/sec2 for those stations outside the basin and between 75 and 110 km from the surface projection of the faulted area, a 40% increase in peak ground acceleration). Residuals for peak velocity are also significantly more positive at stations in the basin (31.8 cm/sec compared to 20.0 cm/sec out). The correlation of peak motion with depth to basement, while minor in peak acceleration, is stronger in the peak velocities. Record sections of ground motion from stations in and around the Taipei basin show that the largest long-period arrival, which is coherent across the region, is strongest on the vertical component and has a period of about 10-12 sec. This phase appears to be a Rayleigh wave, probably associated with rupture at the north end of the Chelungpu fault. Records of strong motion from stations in and near the basin have an additional, higher frequency signal: nearest the deepest point in the basin, the signal is characterized by frequencies of about 0.3 - 0.4 Hz. These frequencies are close to simple predictions using horizontal layers and the velocity structure of the basin. Polarizations of the S wave are mostly coherent across the array, although there are significant differences along the northwest edge that may indicate large strains across that edge of the basin. The length of each record after the main S wave are all longer at basin stations compared to those outside. This increase in duration of ground shaking is probably caused by amplification of ground motion at basin stations, although coda Q (0.67 - 1.30 Hz) is slightly larger inside the basin compared to those at local stations outside the basin. Durations correlate with depth to basement. These motions are in the range that can induce damage in buildings and may have contributed to the structural collapse of multistory buildings in the Taipei basin.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2005

Development of ground-motion prediction equations relevant to shallow-mining-induced seismicity in the Trial Mountain area, Emery County, Utah

To provide a basis for assessing the seismic hazard to the Joes Valley Dam due to future coal mining in the nearby Cottonwood Tract, central Utah, we developed ground-motion prediction relations using data recorded by a seismic network, established and operated by the University of Utah Seismograph Stations. The network was centered on the Trail Mountain coal mine, located adjacent to the Cottonwood Tract. From late 2000 until early 2001, this network recorded numerous mining-induced events with magnitudes as large as 2.17. The ground motion from these events, recorded at hypocentral distances ranging from about 500 m to approximately 10 km, were well suited to developing new ground-motion prediction relations, especially when augmented by data from a M 4.2 earthquake in the Willow Creek mine, about 50 km north of Trail Mountain. Using a two-stage regression analysis, we determined prediction relations for peak acceleration, peak velocity, and pseudovelocity response spectra, at 5% damping, for periods of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 s. To illustrate the potential seismic hazard at the Joes Valley dam, we used these ground-motion relations to predict a peak velocity of 6.8 cm/s due to an earthquake with the probable maximum magnitude of 3.9, at a hypocentral distance of 1 km, recorded at a rock site typical for this region. This result does not take into account the site response at the dam.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2005

Moment tensor inversion of ground motion from mining-induced earthquakes, Trail Mountain, Utah

A seismic network was operated in the vicinity of the Trail Mountain mine, central Utah, from the summer of 2000 to the spring of 2001 to investigate the seismic hazard to a local dam from mining-induced events that we expect to be triggered by future coal mining in this area. In support of efforts to develop groundmotion prediction relations for this situation, we inverted ground-motion recordings for six mining-induced events to determine seismic moment tensors and then to estimate moment magnitudes M for comparison with the network coda magnitudes Mc. Six components of the tensor were determined, for an assumed point source, following the inversion method of McGarr (1992a), which uses key measurements of amplitude from obvious features of the displacement waveforms. When the resulting moment tensors were decomposed into implosive and deviatoric components, we found that four of the six events showed a substantial volume reduction, presumably due to coseismic closure of the adjacent mine openings. For these four events, the volume reduction ranges from 27% to 55% of the shear component (fault area times average slip). Radiated seismic energy, computed from attenuation-corrected body-wave spectra, ranged from 2.4 ?? 105 to 2.4 ?? 106 J for events with M from 1.3 to 1.8, yielding apparent stresses from 0.02 to 0.06 MPa. The energy released for each event, approximated as the product of volume reduction and overburden stress, when compared with the corresponding seismic energies, revealed seismic efficiencies ranging from 0.5% to 7%. The low apparent stresses are consistent with the shallow focal depths of 0.2 to 0.6 km and rupture in a low stress/low strength regime compared with typical earthquake source regions at midcrustal depths.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2004

Attempting to bridge the gap between laboratory and seismic estimates of fracture energy

To investigate the behavior of the fracture energy associated with expanding the rupture zone of an earthquake, we have used the results of a large-scale, biaxial stick-slip friction experiment to set the parameters of an equivalent dynamic rupture model. This model is determined by matching the fault slip, the static stress drop and the apparent stress. After confirming that the fracture energy associated with this model earthquake is in reasonable agreement with corresponding laboratory values, we can use it to determine fracture energies for earthquakes as functions of stress drop, rupture velocity and fault slip. If we take account of the state of stress at seismogenic depths, the model extrapolation to larger fault slips yields fracture energies that agree with independent estimates by others based on dynamic rupture models for large earthquakes. For fixed stress drop and rupture speed, the fracture energy scales linearly with fault slip.

Geophysical Research Letters↗
USGS2003

Wave propagation and site response in the Santa Clara Valley

Forty-two portable digital instruments were deployed across the Santa Clara Valley from June until early November 1998; this array recorded 14 small and moderate local events and 7 large teleseismic events. We analyze the ground motion from these events to determine station delays and relative site amplification within the Valley. P waves from an event at the southern edge of the valley are early (Δ t > -0.35 sec) at stations over an axial ridge in the basement interface in the middle of the valley, but late (Δ t < 0.20 sec) for stations over the Cupertino and Evergreen basins to either side. The S -wave delays are approximately twice as large. Teleseismic P -waves from an M = 7.0 event beneath the Bonin Islands show a similar pattern in travel-time delays. The P waves are amplified by factors of 1.5-3 for frequencies below 2 Hz at stations within either basin, compared with stations on the axial ridge. The P -wave coda appear enhanced at 2-3 sec, but coda Q estimates at frequencies from 0.2 to 1.1 Hz are not markedly different at stations over the basin compared with stations on the ridge with the possible exceptions of consistently high values over the northern end of the Evergreen Basin. We invert the S -wave spectra for site-specific attenuation and amplification from the 14 local events by assuming a common source spectra for each event, 1/ r geometrical spreading, and constraining the inversion using the 30-m velocity profile at four stations in the array. The largest amplifications occurred in the 1- to 6-Hz band at stations near the northwest edge of the Evergreen basin. While the highest amplifications occur at stations with the lowest S -wave velocities, the scatter obscures the correlation between velocity and amplification. The stations in the basins are characterized by higher attenuation than the stations on the basement ridge.

California↗
USGS2003

Maximum slip in earthquake fault zones, apparent stress, and stick-slip friction

The maximum slip , observed or inferred, for a small patch within the larger fault zone of an earthquake is a remarkably well-constrained function of the seismic moment. A large set of maximum slips, mostly derived from slip models of major earthquakes, indicate that this parameter increases according to the cube root of the seismic moment. Consistent with this finding, neither the average slip rate for the patches of maximum slip nor the apparent stresses of earthquakes show any systematic dependence on seismic moment. Maximum average slip rates are several meters per second independent of moment and, for earthquakes in continental crustal settings, the apparent stress is limited to about 10 MPa. Results from stick - slip friction experiments in the laboratory, combined with information about the state of stress in the crust, can be used to predict, quite closely, the maximum slips and maximum average slip rates within the fault zones of major earthquakes as well as their apparent stresses. These findings suggest that stick - slip friction events observed in the laboratory and earthquakes in continental settings, even with large magnitudes, have similar rupture mechanisms.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2002

Mapping apparent stress and energy radiation over fault zones of major earthquakes

Using published slip models for five major earthquakes, 1979 Imperial Valley, 1989 Loma Prieta, 1992 Landers, 1994 Northridge, and 1995 Kobe, we produce maps of apparent stress and radiated seismic energy over their fault surfaces. The slip models, obtained by inverting seismic and geodetic data, entail the division of the fault surfaces into many subfaults for which the time histories of seismic slip are determined. To estimate the seismic energy radiated by each subfault, we measure the near-fault seismic-energy flux from the time-dependent slip there and then multiply by a function of rupture velocity to obtain the corresponding energy that propagates into the far-field. This function, the ratio of far-field to near-fault energy, is typically less than 1/3, inasmuch as most of the near-fault energy remains near the fault and is associated with permanent earthquake deformation. Adding the energy contributions from all of the subfaults yields an estimate of the total seismic energy, which can be compared with independent energy estimates based on seismic-energy flux measured in the far-field, often at teleseismic distances. Estimates of seismic energy based on slip models are robust, in that different models, for a given earthquake, yield energy estimates that are in close agreement. Moreover, the slip-model estimates of energy are generally in good accord with independent estimates by others, based on regional or teleseismic data. Apparent stress is estimated for each subfault by dividing the corresponding seismic moment into the radiated energy. Distributions of apparent stress over an earthquake fault zone show considerable heterogeneity, with peak values that are typically about double the whole-earthquake values (based on the ratio of seismic energy to seismic moment). The range of apparent stresses estimated for subfaults of the events studied here is similar to the range of apparent stresses for earthquakes in continental settings, with peak values of about 8 MPa in each case. For earthquakes in compressional tectonic settings, peak apparent stresses at a given depth are substantially greater than corresponding peak values from events in extensional settings; this suggests that crustal strength, inferred from laboratory measurements, may be a limiting factor. Lower bounds on shear stresses inferred from the apparent stress distribution of the 1995 Kobe earthquake are consistent with tectonic-stress estimates reported by Spudich et al. (1998), based partly on slip-vector rake changes.

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America↗
USGS2001

A method for mapping apparent stress and energy radiation applied to the 1994 Northridge earthquake fault zone-revisited

McGarr and Fletcher (2000) introduced a technique for estimating apparent stress and seismic energy radiation associated with small patches of a larger fault plane and then applied this method to the slip model of the Northridge earthquake (Wald et al., 1996). These results must be revised because we did not take account of the difference between the seismic energy near the fault and that in the farfield. The fraction f(VR) of the near-field energy that propagates into the far-field is a monotonic function that ranges from 0.11 to 0.40 as rupture velocity VR increases from 0.6?? to 0.95??, where ?? is the shear wave speed. The revised equation for apparent stress for subfault ij is taij = f(VR) ????/ 2 Dij??? D(t)ij2dt, where ?? is density, D(t)ij is the time-dependent slip, and Dij is the final slip. The corresponding seismic energy is Eaij = ADijtaij, where A is the subfault area. Our corrected distributions of apparent stress and radiated energy over the Northridge earthquake fault zone are about 35% of those published before.

Geophysical Research Letters↗
USGS2000

A method for mapping apparent stress and energy radiation applied to the 1994 Northridge earthquake fault zone

Using the Northridge earthquake as an example, we demonstrate a new technique able to resolve apparent stress within subfaults of a larger fault plane. From the model of Wald et al. (1996), we estimated apparent stress for each subfault using τ a = (G/β)<Ḋ>/2 where G is the modulus of rigidity, β is the shear wave speed, and <Ḋ> is the average slip rate. The image of apparent stress mapped over the Northridge fault plane supports the idea that the stresses causing fault slip are inhomogeneous, but limited by the strength of the crust. Indeed, over the depth range 5 to 17 km, maximum values of apparent stress for a given depth interval agree with τ a (max)=0.06S(z), where S is the laboratory estimate of crustal strength as a function of depth z. The seismic energy from each subfault was estimated from the product τ a DA, where A is subfault area and D its slip. Over the fault zone, we found that the radiated energy is quite variable spatially, with more than 50% of the total coming from just 15% of the subfaults.

Geophysical Research Letters↗